Compositions and methods relating to blood-based biomarkers of breast cancer

ABSTRACT

The present invention relates generally to the field of breast cancer. More specifically, the invention concerns methods and compositions useful for diagnosing treating breast cancer.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/787,790, filed Mar. 15, 2013 and U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/693,014, filed Aug. 24, 2012, each of which are hereby incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

BACKGROUND

Family history is an important indicator of a woman's risk of developing breast cancer (Amir 2010), but women with a family history of breast cancer and their physicians face uncertainty regarding how to manage disease risk. Various prevention strategies exist, including chemoprevention via selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) (Poweles 2002), prophylactic mastectomy or oophorectomy, and increased surveillance. However, tradeoffs accompany each of these strategies (Vogelstein 2004). What is needed in the art is a way to accurately predict breast-cancer development in individuals from high-risk families, which enables more effective prioritization of such prevention strategies.

In recent years, various breast-cancer risk models have been proposed. Several models have attempted to account for the combinatory effects of clinically observable factors such as age, hormonal and reproductive history, breast-disease history, and family history. (Amir 2010) And because breast tumors arise from molecular-level aberrations, (Vogelstein 2004) some models have also incorporated information about germline variants. (Tyrer 2004; Wacholder 2012). In evaluation analyses, the models have demonstrated some ability to predict who will develop breast cancer, attaining area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) values ranging from 0.540 to 0.762. (Wacholder 2012; Rockhill 2001; Amir 2003; Boughey 2010) However, discrete genetic events may not portray an adequate picture of the underlying molecular mechanisms influencing breast-cancer susceptibility.

Highly penetrant mutations in breast-cancer susceptibility genes including BRCA1 (Miki 1994), BRCA2 (Easton 1997), TP53 (Sidranksky 1992), PTEN (Liaw 1997), and ATM (Swift 1987) are relatively rare in the population. Mutations in these genes account for only about 20% of overall familial breast-cancer risk. (Stratton 2008) Additionally, low- and moderate-penetrance variants explain only about 13% of familial risk, even though they are relatively common. (Maraddat 2012). Variants of any penetrance or population frequency may lack utility in prospective models if they affect risk only subtly or only in conjunction with other risk factors. Complicating matters further is that predisposing genetic events are not limited to single-nucleotide variants. Structural variants including insertions, deletions, block substitutions, inversions, and copy-number variations can also be inherited and are believed to contribute to many phenotypes (Frazer 2004). In humans, it is believed that structural variants account for at least 20% of genetic variation (Frazer 2004).

An alternative to estimating risk with genetic variants is to model the downstream effects of such events. Multiple variants within a given gene or pathway may have similar downstream effects if they drive coordinate changes in mRNA transcription levels. Thus even though two individuals may differ in the germline variant(s) they carry, changes in breast-cancer susceptibility, mediated through mRNA transcription, may be similar for both. Variants within a gene's regulatory elements can drive mRNA-expression changes within that gene (cis-acting effects); however, genetic variants can also influence expression of genes on other chromosomes via trans-acting effects (Schadt 2003; Morley 2004). In fact, recent studies have demonstrated that genetic variation can be associated consistently with global mRNA-expression patterns and that these patterns can reflect heritable disease susceptibility (Cookson 2009; Stranger 2007). Such recognizable expression patterns may result from aberrant pathway activity driven by germline genetic variation; they may also be influenced by molecular-level factors not encoded in DNA, including epigenetic modifications and splice variation.

Specific to breast cancer, tumor expression has been shown to correlate with germline mutation status. In a multivariate analysis, tumors of patients carrying BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations could be distinguished from each other with high accuracy, and these tumors could be distinguished from sporadic tumors (Hedenfalk 2001). In a later study, lymphoblastoid cell lines derived from BRCA1/2 carriers expressed mRNA signatures that were distinct from those of “BRCAX” carriers (patients with a family history but no known BRCA1/2 mutation) (Waddell 2008). Therefore, what is needed is global mRNA-expression biomarkers that can serve as an intermediate phenotype representing heritable breast-cancer susceptibility.

Additional advantages of the invention will be set forth in part in the description which follows, and in part will be obvious from the description, or may be learned by practice of the invention. The advantages of the invention will be realized and attained by means of the elements and combinations particularly pointed out in the appended claims. It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory only and are not restrictive of the invention, as claimed.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

The accompanying figures, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate several aspects and together with the description serve to explain the principles of the invention.

FIG. 1 shows an overview of criteria used to filter exome-sequencing variants. Variants were filtered based on frequency, location within protein-coding regions, conservation, and effect on protein.

FIG. 2 shows the variants identified via exome-capture sequencing in known breast-cancer susceptibility genes. Patients are grouped according to BRCA1/2 mutation status (determined via commercial genetic testing) and diagnosis. Exome-sequencing variant calls for BRCA1 and BRCA2 agreed closely with commercial test results (exceptions are noted).

FIG. 3 is a schematic showing the risk groups for gene-expression analysis. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells for a cohort of 124 Utah women of northern European descentwere profiled using gene-expression microarrays. Each woman fell into one of six groups, divided along three axes: 1) family history of breast cancer, 2) presence of a pathogenic germline variant in BRCA1 or BRCA2, and 3) previous diagnosis with early-onset breast cancer.

FIG. 4 shows ROC curve representing the ability to differentiate high-risk cancer patients who develop breast cancer from controls for the Utah cohort. Prior to constructing SVM classification models, the SVM-RFE selection method was applied to all genes.

FIG. 5 shows ROC curve representing the ability to differentiate high-risk cancer patients who develop breast cancer from controls for the Ontario cohorts. Prior to constructing SVM classification models, the SVM-RFE selection method was applied to all genes. Data for both Ontario cohorts are combined in the figures.

FIG. 6 shows the distribution of AUC values cross-validation assignments were randomly varied and the experiment was repeated 1,000 times.

FIG. 7 shows AUC performance versus the number of top-ranked genes that were included in SVM classification models across 1,000 permutations of cross-validation assignments. Patients from the Utah cohort were used, and SVM-RFE was used for gene selection. The vertical red line indicates the number of genes that attained the highest average AUC.

FIG. 8 shows the distribution of AUC values obtained when the class labels were permuted and the experiment was repeated 1,000 times. The dotted, red vertical line indicates the non-permuted performance. The percentage of times that the actual result was higher than the permuted results is also shown.

FIG. 9 is a schematic diagram showing the risk groups for exome-capture sequencing. Peripheral-blood DNA for a cohort of 35 women from Utah were sequenced. Each woman fell into one of four groups, divided along two axes: 1) prior identification (via commercial genetic testing) of a pathogenic germline variant in BRCA1 or BRCA2, and 2) prior diagnosis with early-onset breast cancer. “BRCAX” individuals carry a genetic predisposition to breast cancer, but no known causal variant had not been identified.

FIG. 10 shows the selection of threshold used to filter frequently mutated genes. Genes that were mutated in a relatively high number of TCGA germline samples were excluded from the pathway level mutation analyses. The number of genes that would be excluded for thresholds ranging between 0.2% and 10% were calculated. A threshold of 1.8% was selected based on the maximal difference in number of excluded genes.

FIGS. 11A and 11B show flowcharts that show the high-level design of the experiments. A) Gene-expression and exome-sequencing data were acquired for women who developed hereditary breast cancer and for controls. Expression values and mutation counts were aggregated at the pathway level and compared between the two groups. Pathways for which the greatest level of discrimination between the groups could be attained were considered candidates for further investigation via cell-based and microscopy analyses. B) A gene-expression biomarker was derived from genome-wide expression values; the biomarker's ability to generate accurate predictions was validated in retrospective and prospective cohorts from Ontario, Canada.

FIGS. 12A, 12B and 12C show a summary of pathways that performed best in both gene-expression and exomesequencing analyses. A) These pathways performed well both in gene-expression (p<0.05 for Utah/Ontario) and exome-sequencing analyses (p<0.10) that compared hereditary breast cancer (HBC) profiles against controls. The values listed for each cohort represent empirical pvalues attained through a permutation approach. “Differentially expressed” genes are those for which expression was consistently higher/lower in HBC compared to controls in the Utah and Ontario cohorts. B) Heatmaps show average expression levels for HBC individuals and controls in the Utah and Ontario cohorts. They include top-ranked genes (as determined by SVM-RFE) that exhibit a consistent fold change across the cohorts. Warmer colors indicate higher relative expression; cooler colors indicate the opposite. These visualizations highlight that for many genes in these pathways, average expression levels are considerably different for HBC relative to controls. C) Summary of mutations observed in key pathways. The number of mutations represents how many samples in each cohort had at least one mutation. Genes for which at least one mutation was observed across the HBC samples are listed.

FIG. 13 is an overview of criteria used to filter exome-sequencing variants. Variants were filtered based on frequency, location within protein-coding regions, conservation, and effect on protein coding. Variants were also collapsed to gene-level values before pathway-level comparisons were performed. All statistics listed on this diagram are per sample.

FIG. 14 shows a gene-expression heatmap for KEGGcell-adhesion molecules pathway. This heatmap shows average expression levels for HBC individuals and controls in the Utah and Ontario cohorts. It includes top-ranked genes (as determined by SVM-RFE) only for this pathway.

FIG. 15 shows a gene-expression heatmap for Reactome integrin cell-surface interactions pathway. This heatmap shows average expression levels for HBC individuals and controls in the Utah and Ontario cohorts. It includes top-ranked genes (as determined by SVM-RFE) only for this pathway.

FIG. 16 shows the relationship between mutation status and gene expression for 34 samples profiled using both technologies. Data for 357 genes that exhibited a strong association (see Methods) between the presence of a suspected pathogenic variant and expression of the gene containing the variant(s) are displayed. Dark dots indicate mutations within a given sample. Expression values for each gene were standardized to a consistent scale for illustration purposes.

FIG. 17 shows Gefitinib assay results. Primary breast cells were treated with the EGFR inhibitor Gefitinib, and similar responses were observed for HBC women and controls.

FIG. 18 shows Afatinib assay results. Primary breast cells were treated with the tyrosine kinase inhibitor Afatinib, and similar responses were observed for HBC women and controls.

FIG. 19 shows TRAIL assay results for individual cell lines. A TRAIL assay was used to compare responsiveness to apoptotic signals in primary breast cells for HBC women and controls. Each line represents the fitted response for an individual patient.

FIGS. 20A and B show cell-based assay results. A) B) A cell-adhesion assay was used to compare adhesiveness to the extracellular matrix of primary breast cells in HBC women compared to controls. HBC cells were significantly less adherent than control cells. C) For primary breast cells, a TRAIL assay was used to compare responsiveness to apoptotic signals for HBC women and controls. HBC cells were significantly more responsive to TNF signaling.

FIG. 21 shows biomarker prediction results when randomly permuted class labels were used for Ontario data. This validation approach enabled us to estimate the probability of observing the prediction accuracy observed for the actual predictions.

FIG. 22 shows gene-expression levels for ITGA6 across subgroups.

FIGS. 23A, B, C, and D show gene-expression biomarker prediction results. A) The support vector machines algorithm was used to produce a probability that each patient belongs to the hereditary breast cancer (HBC) group. This plot shows probabilities for the Utah cohort, estimated via crossvalidation. Probabilities were considerably higher for HBC individuals than for controls, which indicates the algorithm's ability to discriminate the groups, regardless of BRCA mutation status. B) A receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve illustrates the tradeoff between sensitivity and specificity when various probability thresholds are used to discriminate the groups in the Utah cohort. C) HBC probabilities for the Ontario cohort, estimated via a training-testing design. D) ROC curve for the Ontario cohort.

FIG. 24 shows gene-expression levels for PTK2 across subgroups.

FIG. 25 shows gene-expression levels for NEO1 across subgroups.

FIG. 26 shows a summary of variant effects on protein function. Most suspected pathogenic variants were non-synonymous substitutions. However, many other types of variant effect were also observed.

FIG. 27 shows a summary of DNA alterations that resulted from suspected pathogenic variants. Single-nucleotide substitutions exhibited a non-uniform distribution; G-to-A and C-to-T transitions were most common. Deletions were more common than insertions.

FIG. 28 shows a net gain/loss in nucleotide bases resulting from suspected pathogenic variants. Most variants resulted in no gain or loss (predominantly single-nucleotide substitutions). However, as many as 39/36 nucleotides were gained/lost.

FIG. 29 shows the variants identified via exome-capture sequencing in BRCA1 and BRCA2. Patients are grouped according to BRCA1/2 mutation status (determined via commercial genetic testing) and diagnosis. Exome-sequencing variant calls for BRCA1 and BRCA2 agreed closely with commercial test results. Exceptions are noted. “False positive” variants were indicated by exome-sequencing analysis to be pathogenic, whereas commercial testing suggested otherwise. “False negative” variants were identified as pathogenic in commercial testing but did not pass filtering criteria in the analysis.

FIG. 30 shows the BRCA1 variants identified via exome sequencing. Various BRCA1 variants were identified in the hereditary breast-cancer cohort from Utah. The horizontal axis depicts genomic position along the gene. The right panel indicates relative gene expression for each sample.

FIG. 31 shows the BRCA2 variants identified via exome sequencing. Various BRCA2 variants were identified in the hereditary breast-cancer cohort from Utah. The horizontal axis depicts genomic position along the gene. The right panel indicates relative gene expression for each sample.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Women with a strong family history of breast cancer face crucial decisions regarding disease risk. Preventative medicines, surgeries, and surveillance may be instrumental in averting tumor development and prolonging life; however, considerable adverse effects may accompany these strategies. Thus techniques that target prevention strategies at individuals with the highest risk can help strike a balance between benefits and risks. Risk-stratification tools that focus on clinically observable factors alone may lack accuracy by not accounting for molecular-level factors that drive tumor development. Such tools can also be subject to recall errors and may not generalize to populations with multiple ethnicities.

Genetic screening for mutations in well-recognized breast-cancer genes like BRCA1 and BRCA2 can provide valuable information in addressing this problem, but mutations in these genes account for only a portion of high-risk breast-cancer cases. Mutations in other genes are believed to influence breast-cancer risk but likely only moderately and perhaps only in combination with other mutations. Further complicating the matter, various types of genomic aberrations beyond single-nucleotide variants can be inherited and can influence an individual's susceptibility to breast cancer.

Disclosed herein are methods and compositions that account for the downstream effects of a variety of genetic aberrations by profiling mRNA expression levels in peripheral blood samples. It was also observed that such expression patterns can accurately identify high-risk patients who develop breast tumors. This finding applied not only to multiple patient sets, an indication that such patterns are predictive of risk status before tumors develop and that such patterns are recognizable in multiple ethnicities.

This approach aims to account for gene-expression changes that reflect both initiating events and downstream pathway consequences.

The gene signatures disclosed herein characterize pathway-level activity that differs long before a tumor develops between high-risk individuals who develop breast tumors and other individuals.

The gene signatures disclosed herein can be combined with results from genetic screening for mutations in well-recognized breast-cancer genes like BRCA1 and BRCA2. Thus, disclosed are methods of assessing a subject's susceptibility to develop cancer by obtaining the expression profile of the genes from Tables 1-4 in combination with screening for BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations. The combination can also be narrowed to only looking at the expression profile of genes in the pathways identified in Tables 8 and 9 (such as the genes in Tables 11, 12, and 13) in combination with BRCA1/2 mutations.

All patents, patent applications and publications cited herein, whether supra or infra, are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties into this application in order to more fully describe the state of the art as known to those skilled therein as of the date of the invention described and claimed herein.

It is to be understood that this invention is not limited to specific synthetic methods, or to specific recombinant biotechnology methods unless otherwise specified, or to particular reagents unless otherwise specified, to specific pharmaceutical carriers, or to particular pharmaceutical formulations or administration regimens, as such may, of course, vary. It is also to be understood that the terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only and is not intended to be limiting.

DEFINITIONS AND NOMENCLATURE

The terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only and is not intended to be limiting.

As used in the specification and the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an” and “the” can include plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, reference to “a compound” includes mixtures of compounds, reference to “a pharmaceutical carrier” includes mixtures of two or more such carriers, and the like.

Ranges may be expressed herein as from “about” one particular value, and/or to “about” another particular value. The term “about” is used herein to mean approximately, in the region of, roughly, or around. When the term “about” is used in conjunction with a numerical range, it modifies that range by extending the boundaries above and below the numerical values set forth. In general, the term “about” is used herein to modify a numerical value above and below the stated value by a variance of 20%. When such a range is expressed, another embodiment includes from the one particular value and/or to the other particular value. Similarly, when values are expressed as approximations, by use of the antecedent “about,” it will be understood that the particular value forms another embodiment. It will be further understood that the endpoints of each of the ranges are significant both in relation to the other endpoint, and independently of the other endpoint.

The word “or” as used herein means any one member of a particular list and also includes any combination of members of that list.

By “sample” is meant an animal; a tissue or organ from an animal; a cell (either within a subject, taken directly from a subject, or a cell maintained in culture or from a cultured cell line); a cell lysate (or lysate fraction) or cell extract; or a solution containing one or more molecules derived from a cell or cellular material (e.g. a polypeptide or nucleic acid), which is assayed as described herein. A sample may also be any body fluid or excretion (for example, but not limited to, blood, urine, stool, saliva, tears, bile) that contains cells or cell components.

By “modulate” is meant to alter, by increasing or decreasing.

By “normal subject” is meant an individual who does not have breast cancer.

The amino acid abbreviations used herein are conventional one letter codes for the amino acids and are expressed as follows: A, alanine; B, asparagine or aspartic acid; C, cysteine; D aspartic acid; E, glutamate, glutamic acid; F, phenylalanine; G, glycine; H histidine; I isoleucine; K, lysine; L, leucine; M, methionine; N, asparagine; P, proline; Q, glutamine; R, arginine; S, serine; T, threonine; V, valine; W, tryptophan; Y, tyrosine; Z, glutamine or glutamic acid.

“Peptide” as used herein refers to any peptide, oligopeptide, polypeptide, gene product, expression product, or protein. For example, a peptide can be a receptor. A polypeptide is comprised of consecutive amino acids. The term “polypeptide” encompasses naturally occurring or synthetic molecules.

In addition, as used herein, the term “peptide” or “polypeptide” refers to amino acids joined to each other by peptide bonds or modified peptide bonds, e.g., peptide isosteres, etc. and may contain modified amino acids other than the 20 gene-encoded amino acids. The polypeptides can be modified by either natural processes, such as posttranslational processing, or by chemical modification techniques which are well known in the art. Modifications can occur anywhere in the polypeptide, including the peptide backbone, the amino acid side-chains and the amino or carboxyl termini. The same type of modification can be present in the same or varying degrees at several sites in a given polypeptide. Also, a given polypeptide can have many types of modifications. Modifications include, without limitation, acetylation, acylation, ADP-ribosylation, amidation, covalent cross-linking or cyclization, covalent attachment of flavin, covalent attachment of a heme moiety, covalent attachment of a nucleotide or nucleotide derivative, covalent attachment of a lipid or lipid derivative, covalent attachment of a phosphytidylinositol, disulfide bond formation, demethylation, formation of cysteine or pyroglutamate, formylation, gamma-carboxylation, glycosylation, GPI anchor formation, hydroxylation, iodination, methylation, myristolyation, oxidation, pergylation, proteolytic processing, phosphorylation, prenylation, racemization, selenoylation, sulfation, and transfer-RNA mediated addition of amino acids to protein such as arginylation. (See Proteins—Structure and Molecular Properties 2nd Ed., T. E. Creighton, W.H. Freeman and Company, New York (1993); Posttranslational Covalent Modification of Proteins, B. C. Johnson, Ed., Academic Press, New York, pp. 1-12 (1983)).

As used herein, the term “amino acid sequence” refers to a list of abbreviations, letters, characters or words representing amino acid residues.

The phrase “nucleic acid” as used herein refers to a naturally occurring or synthetic oligonucleotide or polynucleotide, whether DNA or RNA or DNA-RNA hybrid, single-stranded or double-stranded, sense or antisense, which is capable of hybridization to a complementary nucleic acid by Watson-Crick base-pairing. Nucleic acids of the invention can also include nucleotide analogs (e.g., BrdU), and non-phosphodiester internucleoside linkages (e.g., peptide nucleic acid (PNA) or thiodiester linkages). In particular, nucleic acids can include, without limitation, DNA, RNA, cDNA, gDNA, ssDNA, dsDNA or any combination thereof

By an “effective amount” of a compound as provided herein is meant a sufficient amount of the compound to provide the desired effect. The exact amount required will vary from subject to subject, depending on the species, age, and general condition of the subject, the severity of disease (or underlying genetic defect) that is being treated, the particular compound used, its mode of administration, and the like. Thus, it is not possible to specify an exact “effective amount.” However, an appropriate “effective amount” may be determined by one of ordinary skill in the art using only routine experimentation.

By “treat” is meant to administer a compound or molecule to a subject, such as a human or other mammal (for example, an animal model), that has a condition or disease, such as b, an increased susceptibility for developing such a disease, in order to prevent or delay a worsening of the effects of the disease or condition, or to partially or fully reverse the effects of the disease. To “treat” can also refer to non-pharmacological methods of preventing or delaying a worsening of the effects of the disease or condition, or to partially or fully reversing the effects of the disease. For example, “treat” is meant to mean a course of action to prevent or delay a worsening of the effects of the disease or condition, or to partially or fully reverse the effects of the disease other than by administering a compound.

By “prevent” is meant to minimize the chance that a subject who has a susceptibility for developing breast cancer will develop a such a disease, or one or more symptoms associated with the disease.

By “probe,” “primer,” or oligonucleotide is meant a single-stranded DNA or RNA molecule of defined sequence that can base-pair to a second DNA or RNA molecule that contains a complementary sequence (the “target”). The stability of the resulting hybrid depends upon the extent of the base-pairing that occurs. The extent of base-pairing is affected by parameters such as the degree of complementarity between the probe and target molecules and the degree of stringency of the hybridization conditions. The degree of hybridization stringency is affected by parameters such as temperature, salt concentration, and the concentration of organic molecules such as formamide, and is determined by methods known to one skilled in the art. Probes or primers specific for c-Met nucleic acids (for example, genes and/or mRNAs) have at least 80%-90% sequence complementarity, preferably at least 91%-95% sequence complementarity, more preferably at least 96%-99% sequence complementarity, and most preferably 100% sequence complementarity to the region of the nucleic acid to which they hybridize. Probes, primers, and oligonucleotides may be detectably-labeled, either radioactively, or non-radioactively, by methods well-known to those skilled in the art. Probes, primers, and oligonucleotides are used for methods involving nucleic acid hybridization, such as: nucleic acid sequencing, reverse transcription and/or nucleic acid amplification by the polymerase chain reaction, single stranded conformational polymorphism (SSCP) analysis, restriction fragment polymorphism (RFLP) analysis, Southern hybridization, Northern hybridization, in situ hybridization, electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA).

By “specifically hybridizes” is meant that a probe, primer, or oligonucleotide recognizes and physically interacts (that is, base-pairs) with a substantially complementary nucleic acid (for example, a c-met nucleic acid) under high stringency conditions, and does not substantially base pair with other nucleic acids.

By “high stringency conditions” is meant conditions that allow hybridization comparable with that resulting from the use of a DNA probe of at least 40 nucleotides in length, in a buffer containing 0.5 M NaHPO₄, pH 7.2, 7% SDS, 1 mM EDTA, and 1% BSA (Fraction V), at a temperature of 65° C., or a buffer containing 48% formamide, 4.8×SSC, 0.2 M Tris-Cl, pH 7.6, 1×Denhardt's solution, 10% dextran sulfate, and 0.1% SDS, at a temperature of 42° C. Other conditions for high stringency hybridization, such as for PCR, Northern, Southern, or in situ hybridization, DNA sequencing, etc., are well-known by those skilled in the art of molecular biology. (See, for example, F. Ausubel et al., Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, John Wiley & Sons, New York, N.Y., 1998).

The nucleic acids, such as, the polynucleotides described herein, can be made using standard chemical synthesis methods or can be produced using enzymatic methods or any other known method. Such methods can range from standard enzymatic digestion followed by nucleotide fragment isolation (see for example, Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, 3rd Edition (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., 2001) Chapters 5, 6) to purely synthetic methods, for example, by the cyanoethyl phosphoramidite method using a Milligen or Beckman System 1Plus DNA synthesizer. Synthetic methods useful for making oligonucleotides are also described by Ikuta et al., Ann. Rev. Biochem. 53:323-356 (1984), (phosphotriester and phosphite-triester methods), and Narang et al., Methods Enzymol., 65:610-620 (1980), (phosphotriester method). Protein nucleic acid molecules can be made using known methods such as those described by Nielsen et al., Bioconjug. Chem. 5:3-7 (1994).

Compositions

Although family history can increase breast-cancer risk, women from high-risk families face substantial uncertainty regarding their personal risk. In an attempt to guide prevention efforts, various risk models have been proposed. However, existing models do not account for the various types of molecular-level aberrations including single-nucleotide variants, structural variants, and epigenetic modifications that may modulate heritable risk. The potential to personalize risk estimates by modeling the downstream effects of such aberrations on transcription were studied. Having profiled global genomic variation in peripheral blood mononuclear cells, the support vector machines classification algorithm was used to discriminate high-risk individuals who develop breast cancer from control individuals. When tested on a geographically and ethnically distinct cohort that was recruited both retrospectively and prospectively, the models attained an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of 0.733. Thus, even though individual patients vary in the risk-conferring aberrations they carry in the germline, genomic patterns that characterize familial breast-cancer risk are detectable in peripheral blood. Upon examining genes and signaling pathways that were prominent in the models, biochemical approaches were used to test the hypothesis that deregulation of TGF-β signaling, cell adhesion, and tumor necrosis factors can lead to an increased propensity for breast cells to transition into a mesenchymal state.

Disclosed herein are a gene expression panels and arrays indicative of the risk of developing breast cancer, said panel or array consisting of primers or probes capable of detecting at least 1 gene selected from: (i) the genes of Table 1; (ii) the genes of Table 2; and (iii) genes of Table 3; or (iv) the genes of Table 4.

The disclosed gene expression panels or arrays can comprise 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, 286, 287, 288, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 297, 298, 299, 300, 310, 320, 330, 340, 350, 360, 370, 380, 390, 400, 410, 420, 430, 440, 450, 460, 470, 480, 490, 500, 510, 520, 530, 540, 550, 560, 570, 580, 590, 600, or 604 genes, or any amount in between, of the genes found in Table 1, Table 2, Table 3, Table 4, or any combination of these tables, as disclosed herein.

The genes can all be selected from Table 1, all from Table 2, all from Table 3, all from Table 4, or from any combination or permutation of these tables. For instance, one could select 20 genes from Table 1, and 20 genes from Table 3 to use in the analysis. Alternatively, one could select 5 genes from Table 1, 5 genes from Table 2, 5 genes from Table 3, and 5 genes from Table 4.

The disclosed gene expression panels or arrays can consist of primers or probes capable of detecting or amplifying any number of the genes found in Tables 1-4, and in particular, can detect anywhere from 1-604 genes. For example, the primers or probes can detect or amplify between 5 and 600 genes, 10 and 500 genes, 20 and 300 genes, 30 and 200 genes, or any variation between

In one embodiment, the disclosed arrays or panels can be specific to hereditary breast cancer. Hereditary breast cancer is suspected when there is a strong family history of breast cancer, such as occurrences of the disease in at least three first or second-degree relatives (sisters, mothers, aunts). The risk of breast cancer determined by the methods disclosed herein does not have to be specific to hereditary breast cancer. Other factors can contribute to being high risk, such as lifestyle (smoking, exposure to various toxins) or mutations found in other genes which are known to be associated with cancer development.

Also disclosed herein is are gene expression panels or arrays indicative of the risk of developing breast cancer, said panel or array consisting of primers or probes capable of detecting genes selected from: (i) the genes of Table 5 or; (ii) the genes of Table 6. These panels can be used alone or in combination with one or more of the other gene expression panels or arrays disclosed herein. For example, disclosed herein is are gene expression panels or arrays indicative of the risk of developing breast cancer, said panel or array consisting of primers or probes capable of detecting one or more genes selected from: (i) the genes of Table 5; (ii) the genes of Table 6; (iiii) the genes of Table 1; (iv) the genes of Table 2; (v) genes of Table 3; or (vi) the genes of Table 4.

Table 5 comprises 79 genes. As such, disclosed herein are gene expression panels or arrays that comprise anywhere from 1-79 of these genes, including 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, or 79 of these genes, in any order, combination, or permutation.

Table 6 comprises 121 genes. As such, disclosed herein are gene expression panels or arrays that comprise anywhere from 1-121 of these genes, including 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, or 121 of these genes, in any order, combination, or permutation.

The disclosed gene expression panels and arrays can consist of primers or probes capable of detecting or amplifying any number of the genes found in Table 5 or Table 6, and in particular, can detect anywhere from 1-200 genes. For example, the primers or probes can detect or amplify between 20 and 200 genes.

The disclosed gene expression panels and arrays can be used in methods that generate a specific profile. The profile can be provided in the form of a heatmap or boxplot.

The profile of the expression levels of the genes can be used to compute a statistically significant value based on differential expression of the group of genes, wherein the computed value correlates to a diagnosis for a subgroup of breast cancer. The variance in the obtained profile of expression levels of the said selected genes or gene expression products can be either upregulated or downregulated in high risk individuals as compared to controls. This is described in more detail herein. For example, when the genes of Tables 1 and 3 are downregulated, these are indicative of a higher risk of breast cancer. When the genes of Tables 2 and 4 are upregulated, these are indicative of a higher risk of breast cancer as well. As described herein, one of skill in the art can use a combination of the genes from any of these Tables to form a profile, which can then be used to analyze the risk of developing breast cancer, or to determine if a subject has breast cancer.

The gene expression panel or array can consist of primers or probes capable of detecting, amplifying or otherwise measuring the presence or expression of one or more genes disclosed herein. For example, specific primers that can be used in the methods or with the compositions disclosed herein include, but are not limited to the primers suitable for use in the standard exon array from the Affymetrix website listed at: http://www.affymetrix.com.

Also disclosed are diagnostics kit containing one or more probes or primers capable of detecting, amplifying or otherwise measuring the presence or expression of one or more genes of Table 1, Table 2, Table 3, Table 4, Table 5, and/or Table 6.

Disclosed herein are solid supports comprising one or more primers, probes, polypeptides, or antibodies capable of hybridizing or binding to one or more of the genes found in any of the Tables 1-6 found herein. Solid supports are solid-state substrates or supports with which molecules, such as analytes and analyte binding molecules, can be associated. Analytes, such as calcifying nano-particles and proteins, can be associated with solid supports directly or indirectly. For example, analytes can be directly immobilized on solid supports. Analyte capture agents, such a capture compounds, can also be immobilized on solid supports.

The term “differentially expressed” or “differential expression,” as well as the term “variant,” as used herein refers to a difference in the level of expression of the biomarkers that can be assayed by measuring the level of expression of the products of the biomarkers, such as the difference in level of messenger RNA transcript or a portion thereof expressed or of proteins expressed of the biomarkers. In a preferred embodiment, the difference is statistically significant. The term “difference in the level of expression” refers to an increase or decrease in the measurable expression level of a given biomarker, for example as measured by the amount of messenger RNA transcript and/or the amount of protein in a sample as compared with the measurable expression level of a given biomarker in a control. In one embodiment, the differential expression can be compared using the ratio of the level of expression of a given biomarker or biomarkers (such as the genes found in Table 1) as compared with the expression level of the given biomarker or biomarkers of a control, wherein the ratio is not equal to 1.0. For example, an RNA or protein is differentially expressed if the ratio of the level of expression in a first sample as compared with a second sample is greater than or less than 1.0. For example, a ratio of greater than 1, 1.2, 1.5, 1.7, 2, 3, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20 or more, or a ratio less than 1, 0.8, 0.6, 0.4, 0.2, 0.1, 0.05, 0.001 or less. In another embodiment the differential expression is measured using p-value. For instance, when using p-value, a biomarker is identified as being differentially expressed as between a first sample and a second sample when the p-value is less than 0.1, preferably less than 0.05, more preferably less than 0.01, even more preferably less than 0.005, the most preferably less than 0.001.

The term “similarity in expression” as used herein means that there is no or little difference in the level of expression of the biomarkers between the test sample and the control or reference profile. For example, similarity can refer to a fold difference compared to a control. In one example, there is no statistically significant difference in the level of expression of the biomarkers.

The term “most similar” in the context of a reference profile refers to a reference profile that is associated with a clinical outcome that shows the greatest number of identities and/or degree of changes with the subject profile.

The phrase “determining the expression of biomarkers” as used herein refers to determining or quantifying RNA or proteins or protein activities or protein-related metabolites expressed by the genes disclosed herein. The term “RNA” includes mRNA transcripts, and/or specific spliced or other alternative variants of mRNA, including antisense products. The term “RNA product of the biomarker” as used herein refers to RNA transcripts transcribed from the biomarkers and/or specific spliced or alternative variants. In the case of “protein”, it refers to proteins translated from the RNA transcripts transcribed from the biomarkers. The term “protein product of the biomarker” refers to proteins translated from RNA products of the biomarkers.

A person skilled in the art will appreciate that a number of methods can be used to detect or quantify the level of RNA products of the biomarkers within a sample, including arrays, such as microarrays, RT-PCR (including quantitative RT-PCR), nuclease protection assays and Northern blot analyses.

Accordingly, in one example, the biomarker expression levels are determined using arrays, optionally microarrays, RT-PCR, optionally quantitative RT-PCR, nuclease protection assays or Northern blot analyses.

A form of solid support is an array. Another form of solid support is an array detector. An array detector is a solid support to which multiple different capture compounds or detection compounds have been coupled in an array, grid, or other organized pattern.

Solid-state substrates for use in solid supports can include any solid material to which molecules can be coupled. This includes materials such as acrylamide, agarose, cellulose, nitrocellulose, glass, polystyrene, polyethylene vinyl acetate, polypropylene, polymethacrylate, polyethylene, polyethylene oxide, polysilicates, polycarbonates, teflon, fluorocarbons, nylon, silicon rubber, polyanhydrides, polyglycolic acid, polylactic acid, polyorthoesters, polypropylfumerate, collagen, glycosaminoglycans, and polyamino acids. Solid-state substrates can have any useful form including thin film, membrane, bottles, dishes, fibers, woven fibers, shaped polymers, particles, beads, microparticles, or a combination. Solid-state substrates and solid supports can be porous or non-porous. A form for a solid-state substrate is a microtiter dish, such as a standard 96-well type. In preferred embodiments, a multiwell glass slide can be employed that normally contain one array per well. This feature allows for greater control of assay reproducibility, increased throughput and sample handling, and ease of automation.

Different compounds can be used together as a set. The set can be used as a mixture of all or subsets of the compounds used separately in separate reactions, or immobilized in an array. Compounds used separately or as mixtures can be physically separable through, for example, association with or immobilization on a solid support. An array can include a plurality of compounds immobilized at identified or predefined locations on the array. Each predefined location on the array generally can have one type of component (that is, all the components at that location are the same). Each location will have multiple copies of the component. The spatial separation of different components in the array allows separate detection and identification of the polynucleotides or polypeptides disclosed herein.

It is not required that a given array be a single unit or structure. The set of compounds may be distributed over any number of solid supports. For example, at one extreme, each compound may be immobilized in a separate reaction tube or container, or on separate beads or microparticles. Different modes of the disclosed method can be performed with different components (for example, different compounds specific for different proteins) immobilized on a solid support.

Some solid supports can have capture compounds, such as antibodies, attached to a solid-state substrate. Such capture compounds can be specific for calcifying nano-particles or a protein on calcifying nano-particles. Captured calcifying nano-particles or proteins can then be detected by binding of a second, detection compound, such as an antibody. The detection compound can be specific for the same or a different protein on the calcifying nano-particle.

Methods for immobilizing nucleic acids, peptides or antibodies (and other proteins) to solid-state substrates are well established. Immobilization can be accomplished by attachment, for example, to aminated surfaces, carboxylated surfaces or hydroxylated surfaces using standard immobilization chemistries. Examples of attachment agents are cyanogen bromide, succinimide, aldehydes, tosyl chloride, avidin-biotin, photocrosslinkable agents, epoxides and maleimides. A preferred attachment agent is the heterobifunctional cross-linker N-[γ-Maleimidobutyryloxy] succinimide ester (GMBS). These and other attachment agents, as well as methods for their use in attachment, are described in Protein immobilization: fundamentals and applications, Richard F. Taylor, ed. (M. Dekker, New York, 1991); Johnstone and Thorpe, Immunochemistry In Practice (Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, England, 1987) pages 209-216 and 241-242, and Immobilized Affinity Ligands; Craig T. Hermanson et al., eds. (Academic Press, New York, 1992) which are incorporated by reference in their entirety for methods of attaching antibodies to a solid-state substrate. Antibodies can be attached to a substrate by chemically cross-linking a free amino group on the antibody to reactive side groups present within the solid-state substrate. For example, antibodies may be chemically cross-linked to a substrate that contains free amino, carboxyl, or sulfur groups using glutaraldehyde, carbodiimides, or GMBS, respectively, as cross-linker agents. In this method, aqueous solutions containing free antibodies are incubated with the solid-state substrate in the presence of glutaraldehyde or carbodiimide.

A method for attaching antibodies or other proteins to a solid-state substrate is to functionalize the substrate with an amino- or thiol-silane, and then to activate the functionalized substrate with a homobifunctional cross-linker agent such as (Bis-sulfo-succinimidyl suberate (BS3) or a heterobifunctional cross-linker agent such as GMBS. For cross-linking with GMBS, glass substrates are chemically functionalized by immersing in a solution of mercaptopropyltrimethoxysilane (1% vol/vol in 95% ethanol pH 5.5) for 1 hour, rinsing in 95% ethanol and heating at 120° C. for 4 hrs. Thiol-derivatized slides are activated by immersing in a 0.5 mg/ml solution of GMBS in 1% dimethylformamide, 99% ethanol for 1 hour at room temperature. Antibodies or proteins are added directly to the activated substrate, which are then blocked with solutions containing agents such as 2% bovine serum albumin, and air-dried. Other standard immobilization chemistries are known by those of skill in the art.

Each of the components (compounds, for example) immobilized on the solid support preferably is located in a different predefined region of the solid support. Each of the different predefined regions can be physically separated from each other of the different regions. The distance between the different predefined regions of the solid support can be either fixed or variable. For example, in an array, each of the components can be arranged at fixed distances from each other, while components associated with beads will not be in a fixed spatial relationship. In particular, the use of multiple solid support units (for example, multiple beads) will result in variable distances.

Components can be associated or immobilized on a solid support at any density. Components preferably are immobilized to the solid support at a density exceeding 400 different components per cubic centimeter. Arrays of components can have any number of components. For example, an array can have at least 1,000 different components immobilized on the solid support, at least 10,000 different components immobilized on the solid support, at least 100,000 different components immobilized on the solid support, or at least 1,000,000 different components immobilized on the solid support.

Optionally, at least one address on the solid support can be a probe specific for one or more of the genes disclosed in Table 1. Disclosed are solid supports where at least one address is the sequences or portion of sequences set forth in any of the peptide sequences disclosed herein. Solid supports can also contain at least one address is a variant of the sequences or part of the sequences set forth in any of the nucleic acid sequences disclosed herein. Solid supports can also contain at least one address is a variant of the sequences or portion of sequences set forth in any of the peptide sequences disclosed herein.

In addition, the genes described herein may be used as markers for presence or progression of breast cancer. The methods and assays described elsewhere herein may be performed over time, and the change in the level of reactive polypeptide(s) or polynucleotide(s) evaluated. For example, the assays may be performed every 24-72 hours for a period of 6 months to 1 year, and thereafter performed as needed. Assays can be performed prior to, during, or after a treatment protocol. Together, the genes can be used to profile an individual's risk of hereditary breast cancer, and, in some aspects, can give a measure of risk.

As noted herein, to improve sensitivity, multiple genes may be assayed within a given sample. Binding agents specific for different proteins, antibodies, nucleic acids thereto provided herein may be combined within a single assay. Further, multiple primers or probes may be used concurrently. The selection of receptors may be based on routine experiments to determine combinations that results in optimal sensitivity. To assist with such assays, specific biomarkers can assist in the specificity of such tests. As such, disclosed herein is a biomarker, wherein the biomarker is capable of binding to or hybridizing with a metabolite detecting, a gene or peptide as disclosed herein.

According to a further aspect, there is provided a computer implemented product for predicting a prognosis or classifying a subject with breast cancer comprising (a) a means for receiving values corresponding to a subject expression profile in a subject sample; and (b) a database comprising a reference expression profile associated with a prognosis, wherein the subject biomarker expression profile and the biomarker reference profile each have at least three values representing the expression level of at least one biomarker selected from Table 1, Table 2, Table 3, and/or Table 4, wherein the computer implemented product selects the biomarker reference expression profile most similar to the subject biomarker expression profile, to thereby predict a prognosis or classify the subject.

Preferably, a computer implemented product described herein is for use with a method described herein.

According to a further aspect, there is provided a computer implemented product for determining therapy for a subject with breast cancer comprising: (a) a means for receiving values corresponding to a subject expression profile in a subject sample; and (b) a database comprising a reference expression profile associated with a therapy, wherein the subject biomarker expression profile and the biomarker reference profile each have at least one value, the at least one value representing the expression level of at least one biomarker selected from Table 1, Table 2, Table 3, and/or Table 4, wherein the computer implemented product selects the biomarker reference expression profile most similar to the subject biomarker expression profile, to thereby predict the therapy.

According to a further aspect, there is provided a computer readable medium having stored thereon a data structure for storing a computer implemented product described herein.

Preferably, the data structure is capable of configuring a computer to respond to queries based on records belonging to the data structure, each of the records comprising: (a) a value that identifies a biomarker reference expression profile of at least one gene selected from Table 1, Table 2, Table 3, and/or Table 4; (b) a value that identifies the probability of a prognosis associated with the biomarker reference expression profile.

According to a further aspect, there is provided a computer system comprising (a) a database including records comprising a biomarker reference expression profile of at least one gene selected from Table 1, Table 2, Table 3, and/or Table 4; associated with a prognosis or therapy; (b) a user interface capable of receiving a selection of gene expression levels of the at least one gene for use in comparing to the biomarker reference expression profile in the database; (c) an output that displays a prediction of prognosis or therapy according to the biomarker reference expression profile most similar to the expression levels of the at least one gene.

In a further aspect, the application provides computer programs and computer implemented products for carrying out the methods described herein. Accordingly, in one embodiment, the application provides a computer program product for use in conjunction with a computer having a processor and a memory connected to the processor, the computer program product comprising a computer readable storage medium having a computer mechanism encoded thereon, wherein the computer program mechanism may be loaded into the memory of the computer and cause the computer to carry out the methods described herein.

Methods

The disclosed gene and peptides, including those found in Tables 1-6, can be used in a variety of different methods, for example in prognostic, predictive, diagnostic, and therapeutic methods and as a variety of different compositions.

Disclosed herein are methods of assessing a subject's susceptibility to develop cancer, wherein said cancer is a breast cancer comprising the steps of: (a) obtaining a nucleic acid for variant detection and/or deregulation (ie. up- or down-regulation) of genes or gene expression products, wherein said genes or gene expression products are selected from: (i) the genes of Table 1; (ii) the genes of Table 2; and (iii) genes of Table 3; or (iv) the genes of Table 4; and wherein 1-300 genes or gene expression products are selected; (b) obtaining a profile of the expression levels of the selected genes or gene expression products in said sample; and (c) assessing a subject's susceptibility to develop breast cancer based upon genetic variants and/or a variance in the obtained profile of expression levels of the said selected genes or gene expression products in said subject's sample from the same selected genes or gene expression products of a control gene expression profile from a similar biological sample of a healthy subject, or assessing a subject's susceptibility to develop breast cancer based upon a similarity in the obtained profile of expression levels of said selected genes or gene expression products in said subject's sample to the same selected genes or gene expression products in a gene expression profile characteristic of a subject with breast cancer or a subject who has a proven susceptibility to develop breast cancer.

The disclosed method of assessing a subject's susceptibility to develop cancer can further comprise performing a BRCA1/2 mutation analysis or at least analyzing the results from a BRCA1/2 mutation analysis and using the results from the BRCA1/2 screen in combination with the results from the gene expression profile obtained with steps (a) and (b). Thus step (c) would further comprise assessing the subject's susceptibility to develop breast cancer by not only comparing the expression profile of the sample to a healthy, control sample but also considering the results of the BRCA1/2 analysis.

The gene profiles disclosed herein can be formed by a decreased level of one or more of the genes of Table 1 and Table 3, and/or increased levels of one or more of the genes of Table 2 and Table 4, as compared to said healthy profile is indicative of breast cancer or a subject's susceptibility to develop breast cancer.

Also disclosed herein are methods for diagnosing breast cancer in a mammalian subject comprising: (a) obtaining a nucleic acid for analysis of genes or gene expression products, wherein said genes or gene expression products are selected from: (i) the genes of Table 1; (ii) the genes of Table 2; and (iii) genes of Table 3; or (iv) the genes of Table 4; and wherein at least 5 genes or gene expression products are selected; (b) obtaining a profile of the expression levels of the selected genes or gene expression products in said sample; and (c) diagnosing breast cancer based upon a pattern of obtained expression levels of the said genes or gene expression products that form a gene expression profile characteristic of breast cancer in said subject's sample.

The pattern of obtained expression levels of the genes or gene expression products can be compared to a control gene expression profile. For example, the control gene expression profile can be from a similar biological sample of a healthy subject, or from another subject that has been diagnosed with breast cancer, or can be compared to both a healthy subject and a subject with breast cancer.

The expression levels in the methods disclosed herein can be normalized using protocols known in the art. For example, disclosed is a method of assessing a subject's susceptibility to develop cancer, wherein said cancer is a breast cancer comprising: (a) obtaining a nucleic acid for analysis of genes or gene expression products, wherein said genes or gene expression products are selected from: (i) the genes of Table 1; (ii) the genes of Table 2; and (iii) genes of Table 3; or (iv) the genes of Table 4; and wherein at least 20 genes or gene expression products are selected; (b) obtaining a profile of the expression levels of the selected genes or gene expression products in said sample; and (c) normalizing said expression level to obtain a normalized expression level of the genes of (b); and (d) assessing a subject's susceptibility to develop breast cancer based upon a variance in the obtained profile of expression levels of the said selected genes or gene expression products in said subject's sample from the same selected genes or gene expression products of a control gene expression profile from a similar biological sample of a healthy subject, or assessing a subject's susceptibility to develop breast cancer based upon a similarity in the obtained profile of expression levels of said selected genes or gene expression products in said subject's sample to the same selected genes or gene expression products in a gene expression profile characteristic of a subject with breast cancer or a subject who has a proven susceptibility to develop breast cancer.

The term “normalization” means to convert a numerical value, such as fluorescence intensity, which has been obtained by a gene expression analysis or the like, into a numerical value that permits a comparison with all measurement values obtained by other gene expression analyses. Expression data may be normalized with respect to one or more genes with invariant expression, such as “housekeeping” genes. When normalization is used with the methods disclosed herein, one can use one of the many methods of normalization known in the art. Here, as the expression level, one obtained by normalizing the determined raw data of the expression level, for example, by RMA algorithm, MASS algorithm, DWD algorithm, SCAN algorithm, PLIER algorithm, or the like can be used. The RMA algorithm is available, for example, on the analysis software (manufactured by Affymetrix, Inc., trade name: Affymetrix Expression Console software).

Further disclosed herein are methods for diagnosing breast cancer in a mammalian subject comprising: (a) obtaining a nucleic acid for analysis of genes or gene expression products, wherein said genes or gene expression products are selected from: (i) the genes of Table 1; (ii) the genes of Table 2; and (iii) genes of Table 3; or (iv) the genes of Table 4; and wherein at least 20 genes or gene expression products are selected; (b) obtaining a profile of the expression levels of the selected genes or gene expression products in said sample; (c) normalizing said expression level to obtain a normalized expression level of the genes of (a); and (d) diagnosing breast cancer based upon a pattern of obtained expression levels of the said genes or gene expression products that form a gene expression profile characteristic of breast cancer in said subject's sample.

Disclosed herein are methods of preparing a personalized genomics profile for a breast cancer subject, comprising: (a) obtaining a nucleic acid for analysis of genes or gene expression products, wherein said genes or gene expression products are selected from: (i) the genes of Table 1; (ii) the genes of Table 2; and (iii) genes of Table 3; or (iv) the genes of Table 4; and wherein at least 20 genes or gene expression products are selected (b) obtaining the expression levels of said genes or gene expression products in said sample; wherein the expression level is normalized against the expression level of at least one reference gene to obtain normalized data or the expression levels in a breast cancer reference tissue set; and (c) creating a report summarizing the normalized data obtained by said gene expression analysis, wherein said report includes a prediction of a subject's increased likelihood to develop breast cancer. The methods of preparing a personalized genomics profile can further comprise including the results of a BRCA1/2 mutation analysis in the report.

Also disclosed are methods of assessing a subject's susceptibility to develop cancer, wherein said cancer is a breast cancer comprising: (a) obtaining a nucleic acid for amplification of genes or gene expression products, wherein said genes or gene expression products are selected from: (i) the genes of Table 5; or (ii) the genes of Table 6; and wherein at least 1 gene or gene expression products are selected; (b) obtaining a profile of the expression levels of the selected genes or gene expression products in said sample; and (c) assessing a subject's susceptibility to develop breast cancer based upon a variance in the obtained profile of expression levels of the said selected genes or gene expression products in said subject's sample from the same selected genes or gene expression products of a control gene expression profile from a similar biological sample of a healthy subject, or assessing a subject's susceptibility to develop breast cancer based upon a similarity in the obtained profile of expression levels of said selected genes or gene expression products in said subject's sample to the same selected genes or gene expression products in a gene expression profile characteristic of a subject with breast cancer or a subject who has a proven susceptibility to develop breast cancer.

In combination with analyzing the expression profile of genes from Tables 5 or 6, the disclosed method of assessing a subject's susceptibility to develop cancer can further comprise performing a BRCA1/2 mutation analysis or at least analyzing the results from a BRCA1/2 mutation analysis and using the results from the BRCA1/2 screen in combination with the results from the gene expression profile obtained with steps (a) and (b). Thus step (c) would further comprise assessing the subject's susceptibility to develop breast cancer by not only comparing the expression profile of the sample to a healthy, control sample but also considering the results of the BRCA1/2 analysis. As described herein, disclosed are methods of determining the risk of developing breast cancer in a subject comprising determining the expression level of one or more genes in a sample and comparing those expression levels to the expression levels of a normal sample, wherein the expression level of one or more said genes or peptides is increased or decreased by 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or 100% when compared to the expression level of a “normal” subject is indicative of breast cancer formation. In addition, the expression level of one or more genes or peptides as found in any of Tables 1-4 can be increased or decreased by 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or 100% when compared to the expression level of a “normal” subject is indicative of a breast cancer formation.

By “susceptibility” is meant the likelihood of an individual being clinically diagnosed with breast cancer.

An increase or decrease in the expression level of the genes or peptides disclosed herein is not always required to indicate breast cancer risk. There can be signature patterns of increased or decreased expression levels of one or more of the genes or peptides.

“Survival time” or “survival rate” indicates the likelihood for survival of the disease for a specific period of time after the diagnosis of a subject. For example, this can refer to a five year breast cancer survival rate, meaning the chance that a given individual will survive 5 years from the time of their initial diagnosis, or from another given point. Along with the analysis described herein, other factors that can affect the survival rate, which can also be considered when calculating the rate, include the stage of breast cancer when diagnosed, whether a given immunoglobulin (antibody) is present, and the subject's age and general health.

“Prognosis” refers to a clinical outcome group such as a poor survival group or a good survival group associated with breast cancer which is reflected by a reference profile, or reflected by an expression level of the methods disclosed herein. The prognosis provides an indication of disease progression and includes an indication of likelihood of death due to breast cancer. In one embodiment the clinical outcome class includes a good survival group and a poor survival group.

The term “prognosing” or “classifying” as used herein means predicting or identifying the clinical outcome group that a subject belongs to according to the subject's similarity to a reference profile associated with the prognosis. For example, prognosing or classifying comprises a method or process of determining whether an individual with breast cancer has a good or poor survival outcome, or grouping an individual with breast cancer into a good survival group or a poor survival group, or predicting whether or not an individual with breast cancer will respond to therapy. Also included is determining the risk level of developing breast cancer, in a subject that has not been diagnosed with the disease.

The term “good survival” as used herein refers to an increased chance of survival as compared to patients in the “poor survival” group. For example, the genes in Tables 1-4 can be used to prognose or classify subjects into a “good survival group”. These patients are at a lower risk of death. Good survival, as used herein, is defined as being expected to survive for five years or more.

The term “poor survival” as used herein refers to an increased risk of death as compared to subjects in the “good survival” group. For example, the genes in Tables 1-4 can be used to prognose or classify subjects into a “poor survival group”. These patients are at greater risk of death from breast cancer. Poor survival, as used herein, is defined as being expected to survive for less than one year.

In one example, the variance in the obtained profile of expression levels of the said selected genes or gene expression products in said subject's sample can be used to determine whether a subject is at a low, intermediate, or high-risk of developing breast cancer. The terms “low, intermediate, and high” are relative terms, which can mean, for example, that the subject is at low risk (25% or less chance of developing breast cancer), intermediate (50% or less chance of developing breast cancer) or high risk (75% chance or greater of developing breast cancer).

In the methods disclosed above, the nucleic acid can be obtained by extracting nucleic acid from a biological sample of the subject containing immune cells, peripheral blood, epithelial cells or cancer cells. If the sample is peripheral blood, immune cells can be obtained which are peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Furthermore, the nucleic acid can be RNA and/or DNA. In one example, cDNA can be generated from the RNA.

The variance in the obtained profile of expression levels of the said selected genes or gene expression products in said subject's sample can be used to determine the type of treatment, or combination of treatments, that the subject should receive. The standard methods of treatment for a subject diagnosed with breast cancer include, but are not limited to, surgery, including breast-conserving surgery, lumpectomy, partial masectomy, full masectomy; modified radical masectomy, and sentinel lymph node biopsy followed by surgery. Any of these may also include neoadjuvant surgery. Treatment can also include radiation therapy, chemotherapy, hormone therapy, targeted therapy, and monoclonal antibody therapy. Examples of these include, but are not limited to, Trastuzumab (Herceptin), which is a monoclonal antibody that blocks the effects of the growth factor protein HER2, which sends growth signals to breast cancer cells. Tyrosine kinase inhibitors are targeted therapy drugs that block signals needed for tumors to grow. Tyrosine kinase inhibitors may be used in combination with other anticancer drugs as adjuvant therapy. Lapatinib is a tyrosine kinase inhibitor that blocks the effects of the HER2 protein and other proteins inside tumor cells. It may be used with other drugs to treat patients with HER2-positive breast cancer that has progressed following treatment with trastuzumab. PARP inhibitors are a type of targeted therapy that block DNA repair and may cause cancer cells to die. PARP inhibitor therapy is being studied for the treatment of triple-negative breast cancer. Another option is high-dose chemotherapy with stem cell transplant.

Also disclosed are methods of assessing a subject's susceptibility to develop cancer, comprising performing exome-capture sequencing to determine the presence of mutations that differ from a subject with hereditary breast cancer and a subject without hereditary breast cancer. The information obtained from determining the presence of mutations can be used to identify molecular pathways affected by the mutations. A pathway can be considered to be affected if any suspected mutation had been observed in any gene in that pathway. The identification of affected pathways can then be used to assess a subject's susceptibility to develop cancer. For example, if a pathway has a p-value similar to the p-values shown in Table 9 or the AUC values of Table 16 can indicate a subject's higher susceptibility to develop cancer. Alternatively, or in addition to the pathway information, mutations in one or more of the genes identified in Tables 11, 12, 13 can be used to assess a subject's susceptibility to develop cancer. A combination of the pathway data, the gene mutations identified with exome-capture sequencing, and BRCA1/2 mutation data can be used to assess a subject's susceptibility to develop cancer. Thus one or more assays can be combined to assess a subject's susceptibility to develop cancer.

Also disclosed are methods for treating breast cancer in an individual, comprising the step of: modulating expression of one or more genes identified in one or more of the Tables disclosed herein; thereby altering differential expression of the breast cancer-related genes to treat the individual. Also disclosed herein are methods that can be used to evaluate the efficacy of various clinical interventions.

The term “modulate”, as used herein, refers to a change or an alteration in the biological activity of a gene or a gene product, such as a polypeptide. Modulation may be an increase or a decrease in expression level or peptide activity, a change in binding characteristics, or any other change in the biological, functional or immunological properties of the nucleic acid or polypeptide. In one example, some genes can be upregulated, and others downregulated, simulataneously.

Disclosed herein are functional nucleic acids that can interact with the disclosed receptor nucleic acids. Functional nucleic acids are nucleic acid molecules that have a specific function, such as binding a target molecule or catalyzing a specific reaction. Functional nucleic acid molecules can be divided into the following categories, which are not meant to be limiting. For example, functional nucleic acids include antisense molecules, aptamers, ribozymes, triplex forming molecules, and external guide sequences. The functional nucleic acid molecules can act as affectors, inhibitors, modulators, and stimulators of a specific activity possessed by a target molecule, or the functional nucleic acid molecules can possess a de novo activity independent of any other molecules.

Functional nucleic acid molecules can interact with any macromolecule, such as DNA, RNA, polypeptides, or carbohydrate chains. Thus, functional nucleic acids can interact with the mRNA of polynucleotide sequences disclosed herein or the genomic DNA of the polynucleotide sequences disclosed herein or they can interact with the polypeptide encoded by the polynucleotide sequences disclosed herein. Often functional nucleic acids are designed to interact with other nucleic acids based on sequence homology between the target molecule and the functional nucleic acid molecule. In other situations, the specific recognition between the functional nucleic acid molecule and the target molecule is not based on sequence homology between the functional nucleic acid molecule and the target molecule, but rather is based on the formation of tertiary structure that allows specific recognition to take place.

Antisense molecules are designed to interact with a target nucleic acid molecule through either canonical or non-canonical base pairing. The interaction of the antisense molecule and the target molecule is designed to promote the destruction of the target molecule through, for example, RNAseH mediated RNA-DNA hybrid degradation.

Alternatively the antisense molecule is designed to interrupt a processing function that normally would take place on the target molecule, such as transcription or replication. Antisense molecules can be designed based on the sequence of the target molecule. Numerous methods for optimization of antisense efficiency by finding the most accessible regions of the target molecule exist. Exemplary methods would be in vitro selection experiments and DNA modification studies using DMS and DEPC. It is preferred that antisense molecules bind the target molecule with a dissociation constant (kd) less than or equal to 10⁻⁶, 10⁻⁸, 10⁻¹⁰, or 10⁻¹². A representative sample of methods and techniques which aid in the design and use of antisense molecules can be found in the following non-limiting list of U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,135,917, 5,294,533, 5,627,158, 5,641,754, 5,691,317, 5,780,607, 5,786,138, 5,849,903, 5,856,103, 5,919,772, 5,955,590, 5,990,088, 5,994,320, 5,998,602, 6,005,095, 6,007,995, 6,013,522, 6,017,898, 6,018,042, 6,025,198, 6,033,910, 6,040,296, 6,046,004, 6,046,319, and 6,057,437 each of which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety for their teaching of modifications and methods related to the same.

Disclosed are aptamers that interact that interact with the disclosed nucleic acids and could thus inhibit the expression of such Aptamers are molecules that interact with a target molecule, preferably in a specific way. Typically aptamers are small nucleic acids ranging from 15-50 bases in length that fold into defined secondary and tertiary structures, such as stem-loops or G-quartets. Aptamers can bind small molecules, such as ATP (U.S. Pat. No. 5,631,146) and theophiline (U.S. Pat. No. 5,580,737), as well as large molecules, such as reverse transcriptase (U.S. Pat. No. 5,786,462) and thrombin (U.S. Pat. No. 5,543,293). Aptamers can bind very tightly with kds from the target molecule of less than 10-12 M. It is preferred that the aptamers bind the target molecule with a kd less than 10⁻⁶, 10⁻⁸, 10⁻¹⁰, or 10⁻¹². Aptamers can bind the target molecule with a very high degree of specificity. For example, aptamers have been isolated that have greater than a 10000 fold difference in binding affinities between the target molecule and another molecule that differ at only a single position on the molecule (U.S. Pat. No. 5,543,293). It is preferred that the aptamer have a kd with the target molecule at least 10, 100, 1000, 10,000, or 100,000 fold lower than the kd with a background binding molecule. It is preferred when doing the comparison for a polypeptide for example, that the background molecule be a different polypeptide. Representative examples of how to make and use aptamers to bind a variety of different target molecules can be found in the following non-limiting list of U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,476,766, 5,503,978, 5,631,146, 5,731,424, 5,780,228, 5,792,613, 5,795,721, 5,846,713, 5,858,660, 5,861,254, 5,864,026, 5,869,641, 5,958,691, 6,001,988, 6,011,020, 6,013,443, 6,020,130, 6,028,186, 6,030,776, and 6,051,698.

Disclosed are ribozymes that interact with the disclosed nucleic acids and could thus inhibit the expression of such. Ribozymes are nucleic acid molecules that are capable of catalyzing a chemical reaction, either intramolecularly or intermolecularly. Ribozymes are thus catalytic nucleic acid. It is preferred that the ribozymes catalyze intermolecular reactions. There are a number of different types of ribozymes that catalyze nuclease or nucleic acid polymerase type reactions which are based on ribozymes found in natural systems, such as hammerhead ribozymes, (for example, but not limited to the following U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,334,711, 5,436,330, 5,616,466, 5,633,133, 5,646,020, 5,652,094, 5,712,384, 5,770,715, 5,856,463, 5,861,288, 5,891,683, 5,891,684, 5,985,621, 5,989,908, 5,998,193, 5,998,203, WO 9858058 by Ludwig and Sproat, WO 9858057 by Ludwig and Sproat, and WO 9718312 by Ludwig and Sproat) hairpin ribozymes (for example, but not limited to the following U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,631,115, 5,646,031, 5,683,902, 5,712,384, 5,856,188, 5,866,701, 5,869,339, and 6,022,962), and tetrahymena ribozymes (for example, but not limited to the following U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,595,873 and 5,652,107). There are also a number of ribozymes that are not found in natural systems, but which have been engineered to catalyze specific reactions de novo (for example, but not limited to the following U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,580,967, 5,688,670, 5,807,718, and 5,910,408). Preferred ribozymes cleave RNA or DNA substrates, and more preferably cleave RNA substrates. Ribozymes typically cleave nucleic acid substrates through recognition and binding of the target substrate with subsequent cleavage. This recognition is often based mostly on canonical or non-canonical base pair interactions. This property makes ribozymes particularly good candidates for target specific cleavage of nucleic acids because recognition of the target substrate is based on the target substrates sequence. Representative examples of how to make and use ribozymes to catalyze a variety of different reactions can be found in the following non-limiting list of U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,646,042, 5,693,535, 5,731,295, 5,811,300, 5,837,855, 5,869,253, 5,877,021, 5,877,022, 5,972,699, 5,972,704, 5,989,906, and 6,017,756.

Disclosed are triplex forming functional nucleic acid molecules that interact with the disclosed nucleic acids and could thus inhibit the expression of such. Triplex forming functional nucleic acid molecules are molecules that can interact with either double-stranded or single-stranded nucleic acid. When triplex molecules interact with a target region, a structure called a triplex is formed, in which there are three strands of DNA forming a complex dependant on both Watson-Crick and Hoogsteen base-pairing. Triplex molecules are preferred because they can bind target regions with high affinity and specificity. It is preferred that the triplex forming molecules bind the target molecule with a kd less than 10⁻⁶, 10⁻⁸, 10⁻¹⁰, or 10⁻¹². Representative examples of how to make and use triplex forming molecules to bind a variety of different target molecules can be found in the following non-limiting list of U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,176,996, 5,645,985, 5,650,316, 5,683,874, 5,693,773, 5,834,185, 5,869,246, 5,874,566, and 5,962,426.

Disclosed are external guide sequences that form a complex with the disclosed nucleic acids and could thus inhibit the expression of such. External guide sequences (EGSs) are molecules that bind a target nucleic acid molecule forming a complex, and this complex is recognized by RNase P, which cleaves the target molecule. EGSs can be designed to specifically target a RNA molecule of choice. RNAse P aids in processing transfer RNA (tRNA) within a cell. Bacterial RNAse P can be recruited to cleave virtually any RNA sequence by using an EGS that causes the target RNA:EGS complex to mimic the natural tRNA substrate. (WO 92/03566 by Yale, and Forster and Altman, Science 238:407-409 (1990)).

Similarly, eukaryotic EGS/RNAse P-directed cleavage of RNA can be utilized to cleave desired targets within eukarotic cells. (Yuan et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89:8006-8010 (1992); WO 93/22434 by Yale; WO 95/24489 by Yale; Yuan and Altman, EMBO J 14:159-168 (1995), and Carrara et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (USA) 92:2627-2631 (1995)). Representative examples of how to make and use EGS molecules to facilitate cleavage of a variety of different target molecules can be found in the following non-limiting list of U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,168,053, 5,624,824, 5,683,873, 5,728,521, 5,869,248, and 5,877,162.

Disclosed are polynucleotides that contain peptide nucleic acids (PNAs) compositions that interact with the disclosed nucleic acids and could thus inhibit the expression of such. PNA is a DNA mimic in which the nucleobases are attached to a pseudopeptide backbone (Good and Nielsen, Antisense Nucleic Acid Drug Dev. 1997; 7(4) 431-37). PNA is able to be utilized in a number of methods that traditionally have used RNA or DNA. Often PNA sequences perform better in techniques than the corresponding RNA or DNA sequences and have utilities that are not inherent to RNA or DNA. A review of PNA including methods of making, characteristics of, and methods of using, is provided by Corey (Trends Biotechnol 1997 June; 15(6):224-9). As such, in certain embodiments, one may prepare PNA sequences that are complementary to one or more portions of an mRNA sequence based on the disclosed polynucleotides, and such PNA compositions may be used to regulate, alter, decrease, or reduce the translation of the disclosed polynucleotides transcribed mRNA, and thereby alter the level of the disclosed polynucleotide's activity in a host cell to which such PNA compositions have been administered.

PNAs have 2-aminoethyl-glycine linkages replacing the normal phosphodiester backbone of DNA (Nielsen et al., Science Dec. 6, 1991; 254(5037):1497-500; Hanvey et al., Science. Nov. 27, 1992; 258(5087):1481-5; Hyrup and Nielsen, Bioorg Med Chem. 1996 January; 4(1):5-23). This chemistry has three important consequences: firstly, in contrast to DNA or phosphorothioate oligonucleotides, PNAs are neutral molecules; secondly, PNAs are achirial, which avoids the need to develop a stereoselective synthesis; and thirdly, PNA synthesis uses standard Boc or Fmoc protocols for solid-phase peptide synthesis, although other methods, including a modified Merrifield method, have been used.

PNA monomers or ready-made oligomers are commercially available from PerSeptive Biosystems (Framingham, Mass.). PNA syntheses by either Boc or Fmoc protocols are straightforward using manual or automated protocols (Norton et al., Bioorg Med Chem. 1995 April; 3(4):437-45). The manual protocol lends itself to the production of chemically modified PNAs or the simultaneous synthesis of families of closely related PNAs.

As with peptide synthesis, the success of a particular PNA synthesis will depend on the properties of the chosen sequence. For example, while in theory PNAs can incorporate any combination of nucleotide bases, the presence of adjacent purines can lead to deletions of one or more residues in the product. In expectation of this difficulty, it is suggested that, in producing PNAs with adjacent purines, one should repeat the coupling of residues likely to be added inefficiently. This should be followed by the purification of PNAs by reverse-phase high-pressure liquid chromatography, providing yields and purity of product similar to those observed during the synthesis of peptides.

Modifications of PNAs for a given application may be accomplished by coupling amino acids during solid-phase synthesis or by attaching compounds that contain a carboxylic acid group to the exposed N-terminal amine. Alternatively, PNAs can be modified after synthesis by coupling to an introduced lysine or cysteine. The ease with which PNAs can be modified facilitates optimization for better solubility or for specific functional requirements. Once synthesized, the identity of PNAs and their derivatives can be confirmed by mass spectrometry. Several studies have made and utilized modifications of PNAs (for example, Norton et al., Bioorg Med Chem. 1995 April; 3(4):437-45; Petersen et al., J Pept Sci. 1995 May-June; 1(3):175-83; Orum et al., Biotechniques. 1995 September; 19(3):472-80; Footer et al., Biochemistry. Aug. 20, 1996; 35(33): 10673-9; Griffith et al., Nucleic Acids Res. Aug. 11, 1995; 23(15):3003-8; Pardridge et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. Jun. 6, 1995; 92(12):5592-6; Boffa et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. Mar. 14, 1995; 92(6):1901-5; Gambacorti-Passerini et al., Blood. Aug. 15, 1996; 88(4):1411-7; Armitage et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. Nov. 11, 1997; 94(23):12320-5; Seeger et al., Biotechniques. 1997 September; 23(3):512-7). U.S. Pat. No. 5,700,922 discusses PNA-DNA-PNA chimeric molecules and their uses in diagnostics, modulating protein in organisms, and treatment of conditions susceptible to therapeutics.

Methods of characterizing the antisense binding properties of PNAs are discussed in Rose (Anal Chem. Dec. 15, 1993; 65(24):3545-9) and Jensen et al. (Biochemistry. Apr. 22, 1997; 36(16):5072-7). Rose uses capillary gel electrophoresis to determine binding of PNAs to their complementary oligonucleotide, measuring the relative binding kinetics and stoichiometry. Similar types of measurements were made by Jensen et al. using BIAcore™ technology.

Other applications of PNAs that have been described and will be apparent to the skilled artisan include use in DNA strand invasion, antisense inhibition, mutational analysis, enhancers of transcription, nucleic acid purification, isolation of transcriptionally active genes, blocking of transcription factor binding, genome cleavage, biosensors, in situ hybridization, and the like.

In addition, antibodies to the proteins disclosed herein can be used to inhibit the function of the receptors. For example, isolated antibodies, antibody fragments and antigen-binding fragments thereof. Optionally, the isolated antibodies, antibody fragments, or antigen-binding fragment thereof can be neutralizing antibodies. The antibodies, antibody fragments and antigen-binding fragments thereof disclosed herein can be identified using the methods disclosed herein.

The term “antibodies” is used herein in a broad sense and includes both polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies. In addition to intact immunoglobulin molecules, disclosed are antibody fragments or polymers of those immunoglobulin molecules, and human or humanized versions of immunoglobulin molecules or fragments thereof, as long as they are chosen for their ability to interact with the polypeptides disclosed herein. As used herein, the term “antibody” or “antibodies” can also refer to a human antibody or a humanized antibody.

“Antibody fragments” are portions of a complete antibody. A complete antibody refers to an antibody having two complete light chains and two complete heavy chains. An antibody fragment lacks all or a portion of one or more of the chains. Examples of antibody fragments include, but are not limited to, half antibodies and fragments of half antibodies. A half antibody is composed of a single light chain and a single heavy chain. Half antibodies and half antibody fragments can be produced by reducing an antibody or antibody fragment having two light chains and two heavy chains. Such antibody fragments are referred to as reduced antibodies. Reduced antibodies have exposed and reactive sulfhydryl groups. These sulfhydryl groups can be used as reactive chemical groups or coupling of biomolecules to the antibody fragment. A preferred half antibody fragment is a F(ab). The hinge region of an antibody or antibody fragment is the region where the light chain ends and the heavy chain goes on.

The term “monoclonal antibody” as used herein refers to an antibody obtained from a substantially homogeneous population of antibodies, i.e., the individual antibodies within the population are identical except for possible naturally occurring mutations that may be present in a small subset of the antibody molecules.

The invention will be further described with reference to the following examples; however, it is to be understood that the invention is not limited to such examples. Rather, in view of the present disclosure that describes the current best mode for practicing the invention, many modifications and variations would present themselves to those of skill in the art without departing from the scope and spirit of this invention. All changes, modifications, and variations coming within the meaning and range of equivalency of the claims are to be considered within their scope.

EXAMPLES Example 1 Genomic Variation in Peripheral Blood can Predict Hereditary Breast-Cancer Development Methods Patient Cohorts

The initial patient cohort was identified in the High Risk Breast Cancer Clinic at the Huntsman Cancer Institute, University of Utah. Women were identified who fell into one of three risk groups: 1) women at high risk for breast cancer due to family history and a putative germline mutation in BRCA1 or BRCA2, 2) women at high risk for breast cancer due to family history and no known mutation in BRCA1/2 (“BRCAX”), and 3) women considered not to have high risk for breast cancer due to a lack of family history and no known mutations in BRCA1/2. The risk groups were then subdivided according to whether they had previously been diagnosed with breast cancer. Participants were considered to have a family history if two or more first-degree relatives had been diagnosed with breast cancer before 45 years of age. Participants with a family history who had not been diagnosed with breast cancer were at least 54 years old at the time data were collected. Participants were matched for age as well as for other characteristics, including SERM use and number of pregnancies. To control for disease-specific noise, all subjects with disease occurrence had no evidence of disease at sample collection time or for at least 6 months prior to sample collection. Across all risk groups, 124 subjects were recruited: 83 with a family history (39 of which had developed breast cancer) and 41 with no family history (22 of which had developed sporadic breast cancer). Table 7 summarizes the various patient risk groups and cohorts.

Women with no family history include those that had sporadic breast cancer to control for signal due to any variation in gene expression due to past cancer occurrence and normal healthy controls. These controls also allowed to account for non-heritable factors that may impact disease risk.

Data from two additional patient cohorts were obtained as a means of testing external validity. Two series of samples were obtained. The first cohort included 13 samples from women who had developed hereditary breast cancer, 15 samples from high-risk women who had not developed breast cancer, and 8 sporadic-cancer controls. Tamoxifen use among those that did and did not develop cancer was assessed, and genes that correlated to tamoxifen use were filtered out of the subsequent analysis. As with the Utah cohort, these samples were acquired retrospectively (for example, after cancer had developed and been treated). Conversely, the second validation cohort consisted of samples that had been obtained, isolated, and stored prospectively when the women first were enrolled in the BFCR, prior to disease occurrence, prior to any prophylactic treatment, and before menopause onset. These participants were followed over time and monitored for cancer development. Among these participants, 15 samples were from high-risk women who eventually developed breast cancer, 17 from high-risk women who had not developed breast cancer by the time of the study, and 5 from controls who had no family history and had not developed breast cancer. This cohort was particularly important for validation because it represents the desired target population.

TABLE 7 Summary of patient groups within each cohort. Ontario Ontario Category Utah Retrospective Prospective Family History, BRCA1/2, 17 3 8 Developed Cancer Family History, BRCAX, 22 10 7 Developed Cancer Family History, BRCA1/2, 20 5 9 No Cancer Family History, BRCAX, 24 10 8 No Cancer No Family History, 22 8 0 Sporadic Cancer No Family History, No Cancer 19 0 5 Total 124 36 37

DNA Mutation Analysis

BRCA mutation analysis was performed by Mryiad Genentics according to their standard protocols.

Microarray Analysis

After providing informed consent, patients donated a peripheral blood sample, and PBMCs were isolated from whole blood in CPT tubes following manufacturer protocol (BectonDickinson). RNA was then extracted using the RiboPure RNA Isolation Kit and hybridized to the Genechip Human Exon 1.0 ST microarray (Affymetrix, Calif.).

Covariate Analysis

To identify blood markers that could influence mRNA expression but that are likely not related to hereditary breast cancer development, a total lymphocyte enumeration test for the blood draw was contemplated. This test provides total counts of CD4-positive T cells, CD8-positive T-cells, CD3-positive T-cells, B-cells and NK-cells. These counts were available for 22 samples in the Utah cohort. Further, epidemiological and demographic data were obtained on 61 patients in the Utah cohort; these factors were age, education level, marital status, religious preference, health, age at menarche, contraception use, total number of pregnancies, total number of live births, age at first giving birth, age at last giving birth, breastfeeding status, age at first period, age at menopause, prophylactic drug use (SERMS), alcohol use, tobacco use, employment-status, and-drug use. Finally, genes whose expression patterns correlated with population variances for any of the lymphocyte subtypes or epidemiological/demographic variables at a 0.01 significance level (tested using ANCOVA analyses) were excluded.

The Single-Channel Array Normalization method (Piccolo et al. Genomics. 2012; 100(6):337-44) was applied to correct for array- and probe level background noise; this method is applied to each sample individually, thus averting intersample biases that can arise with multisample normalization techniques (Giorgi F M, et al. BMC Bioinformatics. 2010; 11(1):553). Probes were subsequently filtered using the PLANdbAffy database, which assigns quality labels to probes based on cross-hybridization potential, location of probes within genes, and whether SNVs fall within target regions (Nurtdinov et al. Nucleic Acids Res. 2010; 38(Database issue):D726-30). Any probe that was not classified as “green” or that mapped to an SNV was excluded. For each array, the remaining 2,201,005 probes were summarized into gene-level values using a 10% trimmed mean; genes that contained fewer than five probes were discarded.

Because the microarrays were hybridized and scanned in different facilities and at different times, ComBat (JohnsonWE, et al. Biostatistics. 2007; 8(1):118-2751) was used to adjust for potential confounding effects that might arise due to these differences. This adjustment was performed twice independently: 1) between the Utah cohort and the Ontario retrospective cohort, and 2) between the Utah cohort and the Ontario prospective cohort.

To identify blood markers that could influence mRNA expression but that are likely not related to hereditary breast cancer development, a total lymphocyte enumeration test was compiled for the blood draw used in the study. This test provides total counts of CD4-positive T cells, CD8-positive T-cells, CD3-positive T-cells, B-cells and NK-cells. These counts were available for 22 samples in the Utah cohort. Further, epidemiological and demographic data was obtained on 61 patients in the Utah cohort. Genes whose expression patterns correlated with population variances for any of such variable at a 0.01 significance level were excluded.

Biomarker Development

A gene-expression biomarker that could identify individuals most likely to develop hereditary breast cancer (HBC) was developed. The biomarker was derived in two successive steps: 1) the most discriminatory genes were identified using the Support VectorMachines-Recursive Feature Elimination (SVM-RFE) algorithm, then 2) the Support Vector Machines (SVM) algorithm (Vapnik V N. Statistical learning theory. New York: Wiley; 1998) was used to generate a probability that each patient belonged to the HBC group; these probabilities were termed HBC Scores. The SVM algorithm uses a kernel function to identify a maximum-margin hyperplane that separates data instances belonging to particular groups (i.e., HBC or control). This algorithm has been shown to perform exceptionally well on high dimensional microarray data (Statnikov et al. Bioinformatics. 2005; 21(5):631-43). The SVM-RFE algorithm (Guyon I, et al. Mach Learn. 2002; 46(1):389-422), which is based on SVM, assigns weights to each variable, estimating their ability to discriminate the groups. Using these weights, a backward search is performed: variables with the lowest assigned weights are removed iteratively; iterations continue until one or a few variables remain. Ranks are assigned according to the order in which variables were removed. Genes that ranked in the top 25, 50, 75, 100, 125 . . . 300 (when that many were available) were used in the SVM models, and the number of genes included in the SVM models was optimized via internal cross validation.

SVM-RFE was performed using the SVMAttributeEval module within the Weka software package (Hall M, et al. ACM SIGKDD Explorations Newsletter. 2009; 11(1):10). It was configured to remove 10% of genes in each iteration; when less than 1% of genes remained, a single gene was removed per iteration. Otherwise, default configuration settings were used. The e1071 package (E1071: Misc functions of the department of statistics (e1071), TU wien [computer program]. Dimitriadou E, Hornik K, Leisch F, Meyer D, Weingessel A. 2011. Available from cran.r-project.org/package=e1071) within the R statistical package (R: A language and environment for statistical computing [computer program]. R Development Core Team. 2011. Available from r-project.org/) was used for SVM predictions. This package provides an interface to the LIBSVM library (Chang C, Lin C. ACM Transactions on Intelligent Systems and Technology. 2011; 2(3):27:1-27:27). In deriving the models, the radial-basis-function kernel was used, and the C parameter was tuned via internal cross validation. Additionally, the ML-Flex software package (Piccolo et al. Journal of Machine Learning Research. 2012; 13:555-559) enabled the analysis to be executed in parallel on a high-performance computing cluster.

The quality of the models was assessed via ten-fold cross validation for the Utah cohort and via a training/testing design for the Ontario cohorts. In training/testing, gene selection and optimization were performed via nested cross validation on the Utah data only. HBC Scores were compared against known classes (HBC or not), and an AUC value was calculated. In this setting, the AUC quantifies the model's ability to discriminate the groups at various HBC Score thresholds; it can be interpreted as the frequency with which the model would assign two randomly selected patients to the correct group.

For additional validation on the Utah data, the same analysis steps were executed using randomly permuted class labels. This process was repeated 1,000 times, and an empirical p-value was calculated by comparing permuted AUC values against non-permuted values.

To identify which pathways may contribute most to hereditary breast-cancer development, an independent biomarker for each pathway was tested. For a given pathway, the gene expression data were filtered initially to include only genes that belonged to that pathway. Then SVMRFE was used for further gene selection, and predictions were made using the SVM algorithm. Pathways were ranked according to average AUC across the cohorts. This approach takes advantage of the SVM algorithm's ability to model subtle patterns across multiple genes.

Model Development

We aimed to demonstrate that high-risk individuals who develop breast cancer (BRCA-Cancer) can be differentiated from high-risk individuals who do not develop breast cancer and from individuals who have no family predisposition to breast cancer (Controls). Initially, this hypothesis was tested within the Utah data set alone, using a ten-fold cross-validation strategy. Samples were randomly assigned to one of ten partitions; in turn, samples in each partition were held separately (test set) and a classification model was derived from the remaining samples (training set). Models were then used to make predictions for patients in respective test sets. After performing cross-validation, the full Utah cohort was used as a training set, and the Ontario cohorts were used for testing.

Within each training set, classification models were derived in two successive steps: 1) the Support Vector Machines-Recursive Feature Elimination (SVM-RFE) algorithm attempted to identify genes most relevant to hereditary-breast-cancer status, and 2) the Support Vector Machines (SVM) algorithm attempted to account for combinations of mRNA expression levels in those genes that influence hereditary-breast-cancer status. The SVM-RFE algorithm [Guyon 2002] is based on SVM, which separate instances from each class using a multidimensional hyperplane. [Vapnik 1998] In SVM-RFE, weights are assigned to each variable, estimating their ability to discriminate the classes. Using these weights, a backward search is performed: variables that have been assigned the lowest weights are removed in each iteration, and iterations continue until a single variable remains. Ranks are assigned to each variable according to the order in which they were removed.

Only genes ranked in the top 25, 50, 75, 100, 125 . . . 300 (when that many were available) were used in SVM models. The number of top-ranked genes that performed best (according to AUC) in cross validation was considered “optimal” and used for external-validation predictions; however, predictions also were made using other quantities of top-ranked genes to enable evaluation of model robustness.

SVM-RFE was performed using the SVMAttributeEval module within the Weka software package [Hall 2009]. It was configured to remove 10% of genes in each iteration; when less than 1% of genes remained, a single gene was removed per iteration. Otherwise, default configuration settings were used. The e1071 package [Dimitridaiou 2011] within the R statistical package [Developmental Core Team, 2011] was used for SVM predictions. This package provides an interface to the LIBSVM library. [Chang 2011] In deriving the models, the radial-basis-function kernel was used, and the C parameter was tuned via internal cross validation.

Model Evaluation

In this study, the output of SVM models was a probability value for each patient. This value suggested how likely a given patient belonged in the BRCA-Cancer class. This value is referred to as the Hereditary Breast Cancer Score (HBC Score). The quality of the models was assessed via a comparison of HBC Scores with known statuses (BRCA-Cancer or Control), which resulted in AUC values representing a model's ability to discriminate between patients in the two classes. The ROCR R package was used for the AUC calculations and for producing receiver operating characteristic (ROC) graphs. [ROCR 2009]

For additional validation, the same analysis steps using randomly permuted class labels (BRCA-Cancer or Control) were used. This process was repeated 1,000 times, and an empirical p-value was calculated by comparing results obtained using the actual class labels with those obtained using permuted class labels.

Experimental Reproducibility

All Python and R scripts that were developed for this study have been aggregated into a software pipeline that can be executed at the command line on UNIX-based systems. This pipeline can be downloaded online.

Additional Analytic Approaches

Additional classification algorithms were also applied to the data. These included the sequential minimal optimization (SMO) implementation of support vector machines and the Naive Bayes classifier from the Weka software package. Default settings were used. A principal-components based classification algorithm was also attempted. For gene selection, the RELIEF-F algorithm and a Bayesian approach were also attempted. These other algorithms also discrimated BRCA-Cancer individuals from controls. LibSVM was also conducted on the data and in general for high-dimensional microarray data. [Statnikov 2005].

Results

Using the methods described above, a genomic biomarker weas identified that can predict which women at high risk for hereditary breast cancer develop cancer. As shown in the figures, high risk individuals who developed breast cancer had higher HBC Scores than the high risk women who never developed breast cancer. Additionally, the individuals who developed sporadic breast cancer had relatively low HBC Scores. Such information provides evidence that these models are not characterizing general breast-cancer risk but rather risk specific to hereditary breast cancer. The resulting AUC values were 0.763* and 0.733 (see FIGS. 4 and 5). Predictive performance increased considerably compared to the first experiment, and performance tended to increase as the number of selected genes increased, reaching a climax at 250 genes. Overall, HBC Scores for the BRCAX and BRCA1/2 groups who developed cancer were similar to each other.

When the class labels were permuted for validation purposes, mean AUC values across 1,000 iterations ranged from 0.495 to 0.545 for the various cohorts. The actual AUC value from the Utah cohort was higher than the respective permuted values in every iteration but two (p=0.002; see FIG. 8). For the Ontario cohorts, the actual AUC values were higher than 98.5% of the permuted values (p=0.015).

In a bid to elucidate which known biological pathways were most affected by germline aberrations, a follow-up experiment was performed in which the data were filtered down to gene sets that are believed to orchestrate specific biological processes. These gene sets were extracted from Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathways, which are based on manual literation curation [Kanehisa 2006]. Table 7 lists the results of these experiments. In particular, genes in pathways that include cell adhesion/focal adhesion, phosphatidylinositol signaling, and cancer pathways were significantly predictive.

Having used the data for classification purposes, a “consensus” set of genes was sought that followed consistent expression patterns across the Utah and Ontario data sets. “Consensus” genes were required to have either a positive fold change within each data set or a negative fold change within each. The genes then were ranked by mean fold change across the data sets. The tables herein list the top genes that met these criteria. As described, the consensus gene set, derived from all three datasets, predicted breast cancer risk with highly significant accuracy.

Example 2 Pathway-Based Analysis to Discover Signaling Events in Hereditary Breast Cancer Background

Individuals who have a family history of breast cancer face greater risk than the general population of developing a breast tumor (Peto J, et al. Nat Genet. 2000; 26(4):411-4; Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer. Lancet. 2001; 358(9291):1389-99). Effective prevention strategies exist—including chemoprevention via selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) or aromatase inhibitors (Umar A, et al. Nature Reviews Cancer. 2012; 12(12):835-848), prophylactic mastectomy or oophorectomy (Hartmann L C, et al. N Engl J Med. 1999; 340(2):77-84; Rebbeck T R, et al. J Clin Oncol. 2004; 22(6):1055-62), and increased surveillance (Brekelmans C T, et al. J Clin Oncol. 2001; 19(4):924-30; Warner E, et al. J Clin Oncol. 2011; 29(13):1664-9). However, because tradeoffs accompany each of these strategies (Gail M H, et al. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1999; 91(21):1829-46), prevention efforts ideally should be focused on individuals most likely to develop a tumor.

Among women who develop breast cancer, 10-15% have at least one first-degree relative who previously developed a breast tumor. Researchers have examined this “high-risk” population for genetic variants that might explain the mechanisms underlying susceptibility. Rare, highly penetrant variants in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes are observed in approximately 16% of familial cases (Stratton M R, Nat Genet. 2008; 40(1):17-22) with a higher prevalence in multi-case families (Peto J, J Natl Cancer Inst. 1999; 91(11):943-9). Rare susceptibility variants also have been observed in genes associated with multicancer predisposition syndromes; these genes include TP53 (Sidransky D, et al. Cancer Res. 1992; 52(10):2984-6), PTEN (Liaw D, et al. Nat Genet. 1997; 16(1):64-7), STK11 (Boardman L A, et al. Ann InternMed. 1998; 128(11):896-9), and CDH1 (Brooks-Wilson A R, et al. J Med Genet. 2004; 41(7):508-17). Moderately penetrant variants in various DNA repair genes—including CHEK2, ATM, NBN, RAD50, BRIP1, PALB2, and XRCC2—have also been reported (Walsh T, et al. Cancer Cell. 2007; 11(2):103-5; Park D J, et al. Am J HumGenet. 2012; 90(4):734-739). Finally, genome-wide association studies have identified a series of common variants that appear to modulate breast-cancer risk—although with weak effects (Stratton M R, et al. Nat Genet. 2008; 40(1):17-22). Unfortunately, in total, these three classes of variant explain less than 30% of overall familial risk, and it is unlikely that additional highly or moderately penetrant variants that account for a substantial portion of familial risk will be discovered (Stratton M R, et al. Nat Genet. 2008; 40(1):17-22). Ongoing efforts to genotype ever-larger cohorts may yield additional common variants; however, the clinical implications of common variants can be difficult to decipher. Wacholder, et al. illustrated this point, incorporating ten, common, breast-cancer risk variants into logistic-regression models (Wacholder S, et al. N Engl J Med. 2010; 362(11):986-93); the models distinguished cases from controls with an area under the receiver-operating-characteristic curve (AUC) of 0.589-0.597, only a modest improvement over what was expected by random chance (0.500).

The proteins encoded by BRCA1 and BRCA2 perform complementary functions in maintaining genome integrity (Roy R, et al. Nat Rev Cancer. 2012; 12(1):68-78). Together with various other proteins, BRCA1/2 repair double-stranded breaks that occur during DNA replication as a result of exposure to exogenous or endogenous compounds (Roy R, et al. Nat Rev Cancer. 2012; 12(1):68-78). Particularly during the menstrual cycle, hormonal stimulation sends strong growth signals to breast epithelial cells; amidst these intervals of rapid cell division, reactive oxygen species may accumulate, leading to DNA damage during replication (Hamada J, et al. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2001; 93(3):214-9). When the BRCA1/2 pathway fails to repair such damage, due to inherited (or acquired) mutations, genomic instability ensues (Roy R, et al. Nat Rev Cancer. 2012; 12(1):68-78). In BRCA1/2 mutation carriers, breast tumors exhibit distinctive transcriptional patterns (Hedenfalk I, et al. N Engl J Med. 2001; 344(8):539-48), perhaps a downstream effect of genomic instability. BRCA1/2 mutations also manifest themselves transcriptionally in normal cells. In experiments where breast tissue that has been exposed to DNA-damaging agents, gene-expression analyses have revealed clear transcriptional differences between patients with BRCA1/2 mutations and control patients having no known mutation (nor a family history of breast cancer) (Kote-Jarai Z. Clinical Cancer Research. 2004; 10(3):958-963). A similar experiment on lymphoblastoid cell lines (derived from peripheral blood) revealed a similar pattern (Waddell N, et al. PLoS Genet. 2008; 4(5)). Despite these clear patterns, many BRCA1/2 mutation carriers never develop cancer. And tumors develop in many individuals who have a family history of breast cancer but no known DNA repair mutation. These observations indicate that impaired DNA damage response is often insufficient to support breast tumorigenesis.

To assess the mutational landscape of hereditary breast cancer, exome-capture sequencing was used to profile a cohort of women carrying BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations that were deemed to be pathogenic in clinical genetic testing. Women who tested negative for BRCA1/2 mutations but who have a strong family history of breast cancer (“BRCAX” carriers) were also profiled. Approximately half of these participants developed early-onset breast cancer, whereas the remaining participants have not been diagnosed with breast cancer and were at least 54 years old when peripheral blood was acquired for this study (see FIG. 1). Individuals who developed a tumor carried a relative abundance of “suspected pathogenic” germline variants in pathways that mediate cell growth, cell adhesion, and transcription. Thus deregulation of these pathways may play an important role in breast tumorigenesis for many high-risk women and may magnify risk when coupled with deregulated DNA repair processes.

In addition to single-nucleotide variants (SNVs) and short insertions/deletions (indels), various other types of (epi)genomic variation can influence transcriptional levels (Cookson W, et al. Nat Rev Genet. 2009; 10(3):184-94). These variations may reside within or outside protein-code regions (Dunham I, et al. Nature. 2012; 489(7414):57-74). Even though individuals who develop breast cancer may harbor different pathogenic variations, the downstream transcriptional effects of such variations can be similar for individuals who experience the same phenotype. Accordingly, detecting such patterns can enable identification of women who carry the highest risk of tumor development. Gene-expression microarrays can be used to profile peripheral blood of high-risk individuals and controls; the support vector machines algorithm (Vapnik V N. Statistical learning theory. New York: Wiley; 1998; Noble W S. Nat Biotechnol. 2006; 24(12):1565-7) can then be used to derive multigene signatures to differentiate the groups. For two retrospective cohorts from distinct geographic areas, the models predicted breast-cancer development more accurately than existing risk-prediction models (Wacholder S, et al. N Engl J Med. 2010; 362(11):986-93; Gail M H, et al. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1989; 81(24):1879-86; Costantino J P, et al. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1999; 91(18):1541-8). More notably, the approach described herein predicted hereditary breast-cancer development for a cohort of women whose peripheral blood was obtained prospectively—years before anyone in the cohort developed a tumor. Additionally, follow-up pathway-level analyses pointed to pathways known to influence tumorigenesis and some of the same biological processes identified via exome sequencing.

Methods Patient Cohorts

Gene expression data for pathway-based analyses was as described above.

Additional Data Cohorts

Among the 124 Utah participants, 34 were selected for exome sequencing. One additional individual was subsequently added to the exome-sequencing cohort.

TCGA Cohort

Germline exome-sequencing data for 611 patient samples was downloaded from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) via the Cancer Genomics Hub. Most samples were from peripheral blood; the remaining 57 samples profiled were from normal breast tissue. Additionally, RNA-Seq (v2) normalized read counts for the same samples were downloaded from the TCGA data portal.

Utah Exome Sequencing Cohort

Genomic DNA from peripheral blood was used for exome sequencing at the Huntsman Cancer Institute. Genomic DNA was then hybridized using Agilent SureSelect Human All Exon v4+UTRs kits. Captured libraries were sequenced on an Illumina Hi-Seq 2000 instrument, and barcoding techniques were used for multiplexing (seven lanes, five samples per lane). This process resulted in 101-bp paired-end reads (58,032,900 unique reads per sample).

For the Utah samples, reads were aligned to the hg19 human reference genome using the Burrows-Wheeler Aligner software (BWA, version 0.6.1) (Li H, Durbin R. Bioinformatics. 2009; 25(14):1754-60). Duplicate reads were marked using Picard tools (v. 1.64, http://picard.sourceforge.net/), and reads were sorted using samtools (v. 0.1.18) (Li H, et al. Bioinformatics. 2009; 25(16):2078-9). Using the Genome Analysis Toolkit (GATK, v. 1.5.3), reads were subsequently passed through various processing steps to realign and recalibrate the reads and then to detect SNVs and short indels; the GATK Best Practice Variant Detection guide was followed. For the TCGA samples, the same steps were followed; however, because the samples were processed at a later date, slightly newer software versions (BWA v. 0.6.2, Picard 1.81, and GATK 2.3.4) were used.

Multiple criteria were used to filter the initial variant call set (see FIG. 1). Any variant for which a minor-allele frequency greater than one percent had been reported in any ethnic population in either the 1000 Genomes ((Abecasis G R, et al. Nature. 2012; 491(7422): 56-65) (phase 1, release 3) or Exome Sequencing Project 6500 (NHLBI GO Exome Sequencing Project (ESP). Exome Variant Server Web Site. http://evs.gs.washington.edu/EVS. Accessed Feb. 2, 2013) data was excluded. Additionally, variants for which a minor-allele frequency greater than three percent was observed in the germline TCGA data were excluded; a higher threshold was used for TCGA because this population was likely enriched for disease-causing variants. Next variants that fell outside exons (plus/minus two bases to allow for detection of splice-site mutations) used in each gene's primary transcript were excluded; gene/transcript definitions were extracted from Entrez Gene (Maglott D, et al. Nucleic Acids Res. 2005; 33(Database issue):D54-8).

The remaining variants were annotated for effect on protein coding using the snpEff tool (Cingolani P, et al. Fly (Austin). 2012; 6(2):80-92). With this tool, variants are assigned a severity level based on their likelihood to impact the downstream protein. Variants that were assigned a severity of “MODIFIER” or “LOW” were excluded. Any variant that was assigned a “HIGH” severity was retained; these consisted primarily of truncating, frameshift, and splice-site variants. “MODERATE” indelswere also retained. Nonsynonymous coding SNVs were furthered examined using the Condel tool (González-Pérez A, et al. Am J Hum Genet. 2011; 88(4):440-9). This tool aggregates evidence from multiple algorithms (SIFT (Kumar P, et al. Nat Protoc. 2009; 4(7):1073-81), Polyphen (Adzhubei I A, et al. Nat Methods. 2010; 7(4):248-9), Mutation Assessor (Reva B, et al. Nucleic Acids Res. 2011; 39(17):e11843)) that use evolutionary conservation and/or impact on protein structure to estimate whether variants are pathogenic. Condel generates an aggregate score for each variant and then identifies a threshold that separates “deleterious” variants from “neutral” ones. Any missense SNV called as “neutral” was excluded. The remaining variants constituted the final set of “suspected pathogenic” variants. For simplicity, heterozygous variants and homozygous variants for which both alleles were the minor allele were considered to have an equivalent effect; the great majority of variants were heterozygous.

To enhance biological interpretation, variants were aggregated at the gene and pathway levels. If a given sample carried any suspected pathogenic variant in a given gene, that gene was considered “mutated” (typically, a gene had no more than a single variant in a given sample). Under the assumption that frequently mutated genes are unlikely to play a role in cancer biology due to selective pressure, we excluded any gene that was mutated in more than 1.8% of TCGA germline samples. This threshold was selected based on the maximal difference in number of excluded genes for thresholds that fell between 0.2% and 10%. Then if a given sample carried any variant in any gene from a given pathway, that pathway was considered “mutated”. Comparisons between the number of mutated and non-mutated samples were performed using Fisher's exact test. For a given pathway, the results varied only modestly with the choice of gene-filtering threshold described above.

Gene-pathway relationships were obtained from two literature-curated sources. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathways (Kanehisa M, et al. Nucleic Acids Res. 2006; 34(Database issue):D354-7) were downloaded directly from the KEGG FTP site on Jun. 16, 2011. The remaining gene lists were obtained from the Molecular Signatures Database (v3.0) (Subramanian A, et al. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2005; 102(43):15545-15550), which aggregates pathways from various sources, including REACTOME (Matthews L, et al. Nucleic Acids Res. 2009; 37(Database issue):D619-2246) and Biocarta (biocarta.com website).

The relationship between variants in a given gene and expression of that gene was estimated using Spearman's rank correlation coefficient. A threshold was determined using a local False Discovery Rate approach (Strimmer K. BMC Bioinformatics. 2008; 9:303). Variants with absolute correlation coefficients more extreme than this threshold were considered to be associated with expression of that gene.

Software

All software scripts that were used for this study have been aggregated into a software pipeline that can be executed at the command line on UNIX-based systems. This pipeline is available upon request.

The pROC R package was used to produce ROC curve graphs (Robin X, et al. BMC Bioinformatics. 2011; 12:77). The fdrtool package as used to calculate FalseDiscovery Rates (Strimmer K. Fdrtool: Bioinformatics. 2008; 24(12):1461-2). The Python programming language (python.org) was used for parsing and summarizing data files. The DendroPy package (Sukumaran J, Holder M T. Bioinformatics. 2010; 26(12):1569-71) was used for performing Fisher's exact test; right-tailed p-values were used, which signified the odds that mutations were enriched in individuals who developed cancer.

Results

Exome-Sequencing Variant Calls are Highly Concordant with Commercial Genetic Test Results for BRCA1 and BRCA2

Exome-capture sequencing was used to profile 35 women from Utah of northern European descent who had a strong family history of breast cancer (two or more first-degree relatives diagnosed). In prior commercial genetic testing, pathogenic BRCA1 or BRCA2 variants had been observed in 17 of the women; the remaining “BRCAX” women had tested negative for BRCA1/2 variants. Within the entire cohort, 19 women had developed early-onset breast cancer; the remaining women had not been diagnosed with breast cancer and were at least 54 years old (see FIG. 9).

On average per sample, 5,848,610,129 bases aligned to the reference genome, and 88.24% of bases fell within exome-capture target regions, resulting in a mean target coverage of 58.10. Across all samples, variants were observed at 1,796,343 unique loci (1,579,855 SNVs and 216,488 short insertions/deletions). After exome-wide filtering by minor allele frequency, effect on protein coding, and conservation (see Methods), 6,573 “suspected pathogenic” variants were observed at 5,222 loci.

To assess the validity of the variant calls, the results were compared against the PCR-based, commercial genetic test results for BRCA1/2. The variant calls agreed nearly perfectly with those results. One false-negative call (94.1% sensitivity) and two false-positive calls (88.89% specificity) were observed. The false-negative variant (rs80358061) resides in a BRCA1 intronic region outside the splice-site junction points. This variant was identified via exome sequencing; however, it was filtered out due to its intronic location. The false positives (rs28897683 and rs80356935) are nonsynonymous SNVs that lie outside the BRCT and RING domains of the BRCA1 protein and thus are likely not to be pathogenic despite evolutionary conservation; neither individual from the study who carried a false-positive variant developed cancer, and one had a known pathogenic variant in BRCA2.

Most suspected pathogenic variants were non-synonymous substitutions. The most frequent substitutions were G-to-A and C-to-T transitions. Most insertions and deletions resulted in a net gain/loss of less than seven nucleotides; however, a few were larger. At least one variant was observed in 4,256 unique genes. A few variants occurred in known breast-cancer susceptibility genes; however, these variants often occurred concomitantly with BRCA1/2 variants or in individuals who did not develop cancer (see FIG. 2).

Hereditary Breast Cancer Enriched for Germline Variants in Genes Associated with Biological Processes Known to Influence Cancer Development

The mutational profiles of individuals who developed hereditary breast cancer (regardless of BRCA1/2 status) were compared against those of individuals who had a strong familial predispositionbut did not develop a tumor. For each sample, a simple rare-variant collapsing method (Li B, Leal S M. The American Journal of Human Genetics. 2008; 83(3):311-21) was used to indicate whether a given gene or biological pathway had been “mutated” by one or more variants. When comparing the number of mutated cancer cases versus non-cancer controls, significant differences were observed for pathways related to growth signaling, cell adhesion, metabolism, immune response, and DNA repair (Tables 8 and 9). Each of these biological processes has been shown to influence tumor development in different settings. These findings indicate that germline genetic variation plays an important role in perturbing biological pathways that can drive cellular transformation; due to genetic heterogeneity, mechanisms likely vary considerably from one tumor to the next.

TABLE 8 Pathway-level result summary. Pathways for which the pathway-based biomarkers attained an AUC of at least 0.63 in both the Utah and Ontario cohorts and for which the number of samples with a “mutated” pathway differed substantially (p <= 0.1) between individuals who developed breast cancer or did not. Pathways are sorted by average AUC. Utah AUC Ontario AUC # Controls # Cancer Fisher p-value Pathway (Expression) (Expression) Mutated Mutated (empirical) KEGG PHOSPHATIDYLINOSITOL SIGNALING SYSTEM 0.647 0.705 4/16 10/19  0.092 KEGG CELL ADHESION MOLECULES CAMS 0.635 0.729 2/16 8/19 0.076 KEGG FRUCTOSE AND MANNOSE METABOLISM 0.851 0.684 1/16 7/19 0.037 KEGG CITRATE CYCLE TCA CYCLE 0.695 0.660 0/16 7/19 0.01 REACTOME INTEGRIN CELL SURFACE INTERACTIONS 0.72 0.654 2/16 8/19 0.048 Table 9: Top pathways for which the number of mutations differed significantly between hereditary breast cancer cases and controls. For a given sample, a pathway was considered to be affected if any suspected pathogenic mutation had been observed in any gene in that pathway. The Fisher's exact test was used to compare the number of mutated samples between those who developed cancer and those who did not.

Taken together, these analyses indicated that—in addition to impaired DNA repair response—mutational deregulation of several other biological processes plays an important role in breast-cancer susceptibility. Although the precise pathways differed among these data sets, pathways involved in cell adhesion, PI3K, ERBB signaling, apoptosis and metabolism consistently rose to the top of the lists and correlated to breast cancer risk phenotypes.

Tables 12 and 13 show the top genes selected from the Utah 1 and Utah 2 cohorts, respectively.

Gene-Expression Profiles of Peripheral Blood Point to Similar Biological Processes

Although genetic variants in coding regions play an important role in disease etiology, they only tell part of the story. Variants that occur in non-coding regions broadly influence transcription (Dunham I, et al. Nature. 2012; 489(7414):57-74) and may deregulate biological processes. Additionally, epigenetic modifications and non-coding RNA can play important roles in human disease (Portela A, Esteller M. Nat Biotechnol. 2010; 28(10):1057-1068; Esteller M. Nat Rev Genet. 2011; 12(12):861-74). Any single variation can manifest itself via changes in gene expression in one or multiple genes (Emilsson V, et al. Nature. 2008; 452(7186):423-8). In aggregate, many such variations leave a complex footprint on the gene-expression landscape. The balance may be tipped toward stronger disease susceptibility when that footprint disturbs biological processes that are designed to maintain homeostasis. On the premise that such patterns will manifest themselves in normal tissue before tumorigenesis, the potential to derive gene-expression biomarkers that identify individuals at the highest risk for developing breast cancer were explored. Gene-expression microarrays were used to profile peripheral blood mononuclear cells for a cohort of 124 women from Utah (34 of whom overlapped with the exome-sequencing cohort). Seventy-three women from Ontario, Canada were also profiled; blood samples for 37 of the Ontario women were acquired prospectively—years before any of the women were diagnosed with breast cancer. Each woman fell into one of six groups, divided along three axes: 1) family history of breast cancer, 2) presence of a pathogenic germline variant in BRCA1 or BRCA2, and 3) previous diagnosis with early-onset breast cancer (see FIG. 3).

Using expression data for all genes, a biomarker that characterizes individuals with a family history of breast cancer who actually developed a tumor was developed. The remaining individuals served as a control population, which included women who developed sporadic tumors. This design allowed for the control of any latent effects due to cancer treatments. Using the support vectormachines (SVM) algorithm (Vapnik V N. Statistical learning theory. New York: Wiley; 1998), how well hereditary breast-cancer development could be predicted in the retrospective Utah population was assessed. In cross validation, individuals with a family history who developed breast cancer were assigned considerably higher “hereditary breast cancer scores” than the controls (see FIG. 7), attaining an AUC value of 0.763 (0.675-0.850; see FIG. 4).

Three approaches were used to further assess the predictive ability of this biomarker. Firstly, the cross-validation analysis was repeated 1,000 times, using a different random seed each time; AUC values were consistently higher than 0.7 (see FIG. 6), an indication that the initial result was not simply due to fortuitous cross-validation fold assignments. These results also were robust to the number of genes included in the biomarker; on average, the best cross-validation results were attained using 250 genes and varied little between 150 and 300 genes (see FIG. 7). Secondly, the analysis was repeated 1,000 times with randomly permuted class labels; as should be expected, AUC values were centered near 0.5, and only two values were higher than 0.763 (p=0.002, see FIG. 8). Finally, whether the biomarker would generalize to a geographically and ethnically distinct population was assessed. The SVM model was trained on the Utah data and predicted hereditary-breast cancer status for the Ontario samples. These predictions attained a combined AUC of 0.733 (see FIG. 5). Importantly, blood samples for many of the Ontario cohort had been acquired years before each patient's outcome was known.

Taken together, these results provide evidence that a gene-expression biomarker based on peripheral blood can be used to prospectively inform women from high-risk breast-cancer families regarding their individual likelihood of developing breast cancer. The biomarker's predictive capability also indicates that even though each individual carries a highly unique genetic/epigenetic profile (and in many cases, different BRCA1/2 variants), common patterns are detectable at the gene-expression level.

To shed additional light on the biology underlying these gene-expression patterns, two follow-up analyses were performed. A set of “consensus” genes that are consistently deregulated across the Utah and Ontario data sets were identified. Among genes that were either upregulated or downregulated in each cohort, the genes were then ranked according to expression difference between HBC samples and controls. The highest-ranked genes were associated (Chang J T, Nevins J R. Bioinformatics. 2006; 22(23):2926-33) with KEGG pathways related to cellular adhesion and metabolism (see Tables 13 and 15).

Table 13: Top genes consistently differentially expressed between individuals who developed hereditary breast cancer and controls.

TABLE 15 KEGG pathways associated with genes from Table 13. Bayes Term ID Term Factor p-value hsa04520 Adherens junction 2.89 0.000762 hsa04510 Focal adhesion 0.59 0.00865 hsa04512 ECM-receptor interaction 0.56 0.00919 hsa00061 Fatty acid biosynthesis (path 1) 0.29 0.0123 hsa00590 Prostaglandin and leukotriene 0.23 0.0132 metabolism

In a follow-up analysis, the gene-expression data was filtered to include only genes that participate in a given biological pathway. Pathway-gene relationships were extracted from various literature-curated resources (see Methods). Table 16 lists the results of these experiments. As in the analyses of germline variants, many of the top-performing pathways play a role in cell adhesion, apoptosis, metabolism, and immune response.

TABLE 16 Pathway-based biomarker prediction results. Hereditary breast cancer status was predicted based on genes that belong to literature-curated biological pathways. For a given pathway, the gene-expression data was preliminarily filtered to include only genes from that pathway. Pathways are sorted by average AUC across the cohorts. Pathway Utah Ontario KEGG SMALL CELL LUNG CANCER 0.741 0.680 KEGG PEROXISOME 0.674 0.712 BIOCARTA DREAM PATHWAY 0.656 0.701 KEGG PHOSPHATIDYLINOSITOL SIGNALING 0.647 0.705 SYSTEM BIOCARTA BCR PATHWAY 0.698 0.705 REACTOME FORMATION OF PLATELET PLUG 0.704 0.668 REACTOME CELL DEATH SIGNALLING VIA 0.653 0.684 NRAGE NRIF AND NADE KEGG ARRHYTHMOGENIC RIGHT 0.619 0.733 VENTRICULAR CARDIOMYOPATHY AR . . . BIOCARTA AT1R PATHWAY 0.736 0.643 KEGG PATHWAYS IN CANCER 0.793 0.634 BIOCARTA STRESS PATHWAY 0.683 0.691 KEGG CELL ADHESION MOLECULES CAMS 0.635 0.729 BIOCARTA CELL2CELL PATHWAY 0.628 0.703 KEGG OSTEOCLAST DIFFERENTIATION 0.663 0.684 REACTOME PLATELET DEGRANULATION 0.739 0.656 REACTOME RNA POLYMERASE I 0.701 0.635 PROMOTER CLEARANCE KEGG CYTOKINE CYTOKINE 0.673 0.677 RECEPTOR INTERACTION KEGG FC EPSILON RI SIGNALING PATHWAY 0.637 0.682 BIOCARTA PYK2 PATHWAY 0.762 0.625 REACTOME FANCONI ANEMIA PATHWAY 0.58 0.688

Example 3 Individualized Multi-Omic Risk Assessment of Hereditary Breast Cancer Summary

While prevention strategies such as prophylactic surgery and chemoprevention are available for women with a family history of breast cancer, these treatments cause physical and psychological effects that make them unacceptable to many individuals. In addition, individual cancer risk may vary for women from high-risk families, as not all women in these families develop breast cancer even if they inherit the same highly penetrant predisposition genes or other identifiable genetic modifiers. To predict a woman's individual risk for development of hereditary breast cancer and gain insight into novel susceptibility signaling pathways, the germline transcriptome and genetic variants were profiled from peripheral blood of affected high-risk women as well as three groups of controls: unaffected high-risk women, women with sporadic breast cancer, and normal controls without breast cancer. Across multiple cohorts from distinct geographical regions, multigene expression profiles and mutation spectra for pathways related to cell-cell adhesion and integrin signaling consistently distinguished affected high-risk women from controls better than for hundreds of other pathways. Validation studies using cell-based assays on an independent set of primary breast cells support the concept that cell-cell and cell—extracellular matrix adhesion processes are disrupted in non-malignant mammary epithelial cells of high-risk women. To further optimize clinical application, a blood-based biomarker was empirically derived from genome-wide expression levels. This biomarker predicted a high-risk individual's likelihood of developing hereditary breast cancer with high accuracy and was validated in an independent high-risk population. Together, these studies reflect a new approach to identification of novel susceptibility pathways and prediction of hereditary breast cancer risk.

Background

High-throughput genomic profiling has been instrumental to recent biomedical advances including defining novel cancer subtypes, refining diagnosis or prognosis estimates, and tailoring therapeutic interventions to individual patients. Whereas DNA sequencing analysis can identify discrete variants that influence cancer predisposition or tumorigenesis, transcriptional profiling can reflect more complex dynamics that occur within a cell, driven by genetic and epigenetic variation, as well as co-regulation of genes within a biological pathway. Complementary insights can be gained when multiple genetic/genomic approaches are used for a given sample. For example, in breast and brain tumors, somatic mutation data have been combined with gene-expression data to improve the understanding of the molecular basis of tumorigenesis and mechanisms of treatment response. In addition, transcription levels in normal cells reflect intermediate effects arising from germline variation and thus can aid in interpreting the clinical significance of such variants.

Researchers have identified various genes that may play a role in breast tumor development. Although much can be gained from examining the roles of such genes or alleles in isolation, a more holistic, pathway-based approach is necessary to elucidate the broad impact of genomic variation. For example, candidate driver mutations vary widely across individuals and are often unique to each tumor. Wood, et al. showed that p110α, the active component of PI3K, was mutated in 11.9% of breast tumors; however, 33.3% of tumors contained mutations in the PI3K pathway if other genes in the network are considered. Pathway-level aggregation can place such observations in biological context and reduce data dimensionality, thus aiding discovery of biological processes that are differentially regulated between conditions. Unfortunately, in many genetic-predisposition studies, pathway-based summarization is complicated by loci falling outside coding regions; additionally, de novo efforts to identify alleles that coordinately influence disease risk are hindered by the extreme statistical burden of testing higher order interactions. Transcriptional profiling can overcome these limitations by capturing downstream functional effects of multiple types of germline aberrations. This association between genetic and transcriptomic variation was initially mapped in yeast, which linked genetic variants in parental yeast to expression traits in progeny. Subsequent studies have identified thousands of expression quantitative trait loci in the human genome. In fact, recent studies have demonstrated that genetic variation can be associated consistently with global mRNA-expression patterns and that these patterns can reflect heritable disease susceptibility. Different variants within a given gene or pathway may have similar downstream effects if they drive coordinated changes in mRNA transcription levels. For both normal and cancer cells, previous studies highlight the ability of transcriptional profiling to reveal pathway-activation status, independent of the underlying mechanisms such as genetic variants. Specific to breast cancer, peripheral blood cells and tumors from women with BRCA1/2 mutations express distinct patterns of gene expression from controls, indicating that genetic variance is reflected in gene expression data, which can be used as a marker for disease risk.

To interrogate signaling pathways dysregulated in women who develop hereditary breast cancer (HBC), both gene expression and DNA-sequencing data was leveraged from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) (FIG. 11); this data was used to discriminate between individuals who develop HBC and those who do not by using genes from each of over 900 canonical signaling pathways. Pathways were identified that discriminate between women with HBC and controls in three independent gene-expression cohorts and a DNA-sequencing cohort. Multigene expression signatures for cell adhesion pathways distinguished women who developed HBC from controls; the women with HBC also carried a relative abundance of suspected pathogenic germline variants in these pathways. Based on these data, cell adhesion properties of normal mammary epithelial cells from either control breast reduction patients or prophylactic mastectomies from high-risk women were compared. Both fluorescence microscopy and in vitro assays provided evidence that cell adhesion mechanisms are disrupted in normal cells of high-risk individuals, supporting the pathway-based biomarker findings. As pathway-summarized transcriptomic data showed discriminatory patterns in affected high-risk women compared to controls, an empirical gene expression-based biomarker of HBC development was tested. The model predicted HBC development at high accuracy levels and was able to predict hereditary breast cancer development for an independent, demographically distinct cohort of high-risk women. Together, transcriptomic, genetic, and phenotypic variation implicate dysregulated cell adhesion pathways in HBC susceptibility. The findings also indicate that transcriptomic profiles of normal cells from high-risk women have potential to predict subsequent development of breast cancer and therefore guide individual patients' decisions regarding medical management.

Results Overview of Patient Cohorts and Genomic Data Acquisition

Exon microarrays were used to quantify gene-expression levels in PBMCs for an original cohort of 124 women from the High Risk Breast Cancer Clinic at the Huntsman Cancer Institute (Utah, USA) and for an independent validation cohort of 73 women from the Ontario, Canada site of the Breast Cancer Family Registry (see Tables 17 and Table 7). Importantly, the validation cohort was from a geographically distinct region and included many women who were premenopausal. Each cohort contained women from HBC families—each of these participants had two or more relatives with breast cancer. Nearly half of these women developed HBC, whereas the others met the family history criteria but had not developed breast cancer by at least 54 years of age. Women from HBC families were equally distributed between those that carried pathogenic mutations in BRCA1/2 and “BRCAX” women did not. Both cohorts also contained women with no family history of breast cancer and who either developed sporadic breast cancer or did not. For the gene-expression analyses, the women were categorized into two main groups: “HBC affected” and “controls” (FIG. 3 and Methods). The former group contained affected women from HBC families; the latter group contained unaffected women from HBC families and women who were not from HBC families and who did or did not develop sporadic breast cancer. To correct for potential confounding effects, expression data were filtered to remove genes whose expression correlated to epidemiological or demographic variance or to lymphocyte subpopulations (see Methods). Finally, a gene expression dataset of normal breast tissue from control or high-risk women was used to focus on signaling events present in breast epithelial cells.

TABLE 17 Data set summary. Biospecimens were acquired from various sources and profiled using gene-expression microarrays and/or exome-capture sequencing. A) Gene expression Tissue # Sam- # Description Source Platform ples Facility Genes Utah PBMCs Affymetrix 124 Boston U. 25,195 Exon array Ontario PBMCs Affymetrix 36 Duke U. 25,195 (Retro- Exon array spective) Ontario PBMCs Affymetrix 37 Boston U. 25,195 (Pro- Exon array spective) Lim, Pre- Illumina 20 N/A 25,186 et al. neoplastic Human WG-g breast beadchip B) DNA Sequencing Description Tissue Source #Sample Utah PBMCs 124 Cousin pairs . . . ?? 40 The Cancer Genome Blood/normal 611

In conjunction with the expression data, the exomes of 35 patients in the Utah cohort for which we had matching DNA were sequenced. Suspected pathogenic variants were identified by developing a computational pipeline that filtered variants by population frequency, effect on protein coding, and evolutionary conservation (Methods and FIG. 13). Variants that have been observed frequently (>1%) in large population-based studies were excluded. In an important additional filtering step, the computational pipeline was used to process 611 germline samples from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA); this step excluded 7.0% of single nucleotide variants (SNVs) and 35.7% of short insertion/deletion variants (InDels) that remained after population-based filtering. Finally, variants that occurred frequently (>15%) in the Utah samples were excluded. This step excluded an additional 34.6% and 34.8% of SNVs and InDels, respectively. For BRCA1/2, these variant calls were highly sensitive (94.1%) and specific (88.9%) compared to observations from commercial genetic testing. To enable pathway-based interpretation, variants at the gene and pathway levels were aggregated and frequently mutated genes were excluded. For a given sample, a pathway was considered to be “mutated” if a variant was observed in any gene within that pathway. On average, 82.0 genes and 30.0 pathways were mutated per sample.

Multi-Omic Pathway-Specific Classification Hereditary Breast Cancer Risk

To gain a better understanding of biological processes that play a role in HBC development and to test the predictive capability of each individual pathway, the genomic data described above was mapped to 929 literature-curated pathway maps (FIG. 11). For the gene-expression data, a machine-learning classification approach was used, support vector machines (SVM), to evaluate the ability of expression levels from genes in a given pathway to distinguish affected HBC women from controls (unaffected HBC, sporadic cancer, and unaffected non-HBC); the statistical significance was calculated using a permutation approach (see Methods for additional details). For the sequencing data, significance was assessed based on the number of mutations in affected HBC versus controls using Fisher's exact test. Pathways were prioritized based on the combined level of statistical significance across the four cohorts comprised of two types of genomic data using Fisher's combined probability test. After a conservative Bonferroni correction, eight signaling pathways showed significant dysregulation (Bonferroni adjusted p-value<0.05, Table 18). The genes in these pathways are important in cell adhesion, oncogenic signaling networks (including cell cycle, MAPK, PI3K and TNF signaling), and metabolic processes.

TABLE 18 Pathways that fell below 0.05 significance threshold. Pathways that passed filtering thresholds on Fisher combined probability test after Bonferroni correction. Utah Ontario Lim Utah Combined Corrected Pathway (RNA (RNA) (RNA) (DNA) p-value p-value KEGG SMALL CELL LUNG 0.001 0.006 0.016 0.132  1.5e−05 0.0139 REACTOME SIGNALING IN 0.001 0.100 0.017 0.0144 2.62e−05 0.0242 IMMUNE SYSTEM KEGG CELL ADHESION 0.005 0.001 0.090 0.058 2.76e−05 0.0256 MOLECULES CAMS BIOCARTA BCR PATHWAY 0.001 0.004 0.028 0.287 3.29e−05 0.0305 REACTOME INTEGRIN CELL 0.001 0.017 0.037 0.058 3.65e−05 0.0339 SURFACE INTE . . . REACTOME RNA POLYMERASE I 0.001 0.020 0.002 0.944 3.76e−05 0.0349 PROMOTER- KEGG CITRATE CYCLE TCA 0.001 0.015 0.442 0.00749 4.73e−05 0.0438 CYCLE BIOCARTA STRESS 0.002 0.008 0.016 0.227 5.39e−05 0.0499

Two of these pathways—Integrin cell surface interactions and Cell adhesion molecules—were focused on as they were the only pathways with both a Bonferonni adjusted combined p-value less than 0.05 and individual p-values less than 0.10 for each-omic dataset examined (FIG. 12A). Specifically, classification models based on these pathways effectively discriminated “HBC affected” women from controls in the initial Utah training dataset. Importantly, these models were also able to accurately distinguish affected HBC individuals from controls in the Ontario validation dataset. Furthermore, in an independent dataset of normal breast tissue (Lim 2009, GSE17072), gene-expression profiles for these cell adhesion pathways were effective at classifying women with strong family histories of breast cancer from controls. FIG. 12B highlights specific genes whose expression was consistently different for these pathways between the two groups in the samples (see also FIGS. 14 and 15). As an independent statistical test, the GATHER algorithm was also applied to the genes that best distinguished affected HBC women from controls; this approach also indicated a significant association between HBC development and Kyoto Encyclopedia or Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathways related to cell adhesion: Adherens junctions, extracellular matrix (ECM)-receptor interaction (p-values<0.02, Table 19).

TABLE 19 Summary of alternative cell-adhesion pathways. Pathways that did not pass filtering thresholds but that provide additional evidence that cell-adhesion processes are deregulated in hereditary breast cancer. Utah Ontario Lim Utah Combined Corrected Pathway (RNA (RNA) (RNA) (DNA) p-value p-value KEGG FOCAL ADHESION 0.001 0.024 0.011 0.596 0.000123 0.114 SIG CHEMOTAXIS 0.002 0.059 0.024 0.072 0.000152 0.141 BIOCARTA ECM PATHWAY 0.001 0.053 0.026 0.227 0.000215 0.199 REACTOME CELL SURFACE 0.001 0.069 0.049 0.0935 0.000217 0.201 INTERACTIONS . . . ST INTEGRIN SIGNALING 0.001 0.066 0.023 0.212 0.00022 0.204 PATHWAY

Additionally, affected HBC women carried a relative abundance of suspected pathogenic variants in these pathways in the matched samples from the Utah cohort (FIGS. 12C, 16). A variety of other pathways related to cell adhesion—including Focal Adhesion, Chemotaxis, and ECM—also performed well in the analyses, even though they fell above the significance thresholds in some cases. Lastly, the study highlights the ability of these pathways to predict an individual's risk of HBC development by projection of pathway-specific gene expression signatures generated in the Utah training cohort into the independent and external Ontario cohort. Both Integrin cell surface interactions and Cell adhesion molecules pathways function as relatively accurate gene expression based biomarkers, with area under receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) values of 0.72 and 0.64, respectively, in the training Utah cohort and values of 0.65 and 0.71 in the independent validation Ontario cohort (FIGS. 16-19).

Together, these findings indicate that genetic variation and aberrant transcriptional activity (in part driven by genetic variation, see FIG. 7) perturb normal cell adhesion activity, potentially leading to an increased risk of breast tumors in HBC women. In cancer, expression of genes that participate in cell-cell and cell-ECM interactions are often downregulated. Although the precise mechanisms by which this perturbation occurs may vary considerably from one individual to the next, the results consistently point to disrupted cell adhesion mechanisms as a predictor of breast cancer risk.

Aberrant Cell Adhesion in Normal Mammary Epithelial Cells of High-Risk Women

As the gene expression and DNA-mutation genomic studies consistently show dysregulation of cell adhesion pathways in the peripheral blood of high-risk women who develop breast cancer and in normal-appearing mammary tissue from prophylactic surgeries of high-risk women, primary mammary epithelial cells were utilized to investigate cell adhesion phenotypes of breast cancer susceptibility. These studies aimed to determine if normal breast tissue from high-risk women has aberrant cell-cell and cell-ECM interactions when compared to normal breast tissue from control women who underwent breast reduction surgeries for non-cancer related reasons.

To determine if a qualitative cytoskeletal cell-cell adhesion phenotype could be detected between cells isolated from unaffected control patients compared to cells isolated from high-risk patients, fluorescence microscopy was used. Normal primary mammary epithelial cells from each of the 24 patient cultures were seeded onto glass slides, grown for 3-5 days, then fixed, stained, and imaged in a blinded manner. Cells stained for F-actin, focal adhesions, and nuclei are presented from ten patients. Primary breast epithelial cells from control unaffected patients or from high-risk unaffected patients were cultured on glass slides for 3-5 days and subsequently fixed and stained for F-actin, focal adhesions and nuclei. Widefield epifluorescence microscopy of the cells was used for cell imaging. Cell morphology ranged from compact clusters of tightly bunched cells, to dispersed single cells with well-developed actin cytoskeletons and adhesion sites. After the cells were unblinded, the control cell cultures were found more often clustered together and displayed actin filaments and focal adhesions as commonly seen in normal mammary epithelial cell cultures, while over 45% of the high risk cell cultures exhibited well-spread cells with remarkable actin cytoskeletons. Specifically, the high-risk cultures showed decreased cell-cell contacts as evidenced largely by their loosely associated growth patterns and diminished cytoskeletal interactions as seen by the F-actin structures. These observations indicate the actin regulatory pathways in HBC women can be phenotypically distinct from normal controls, leading to decreased cell-cell contact disposition in response to growth in vitro.

The genomic data also indicate a dysregulation in cell-ECM pathways. To evaluate the ability of cells to adhere to the ECM, an in vitro cell adhesion assay was used. Specifically, a quantitative assay was performed in which single cells from the same primary normal (non-malignant) mammary epithelial cultures described above were allowed to adhere to laminin coated plates for three hours to test for cell-ECM interaction and adherence. The results show a modest but significant decrease in cell adhesion in HBC samples compared to control women (FIG. 20A, p-value=0.04), again supporting the findings of the genomic studies, which indicate significant difference in integrin-based signaling between HBC and control phenotypes. Of note, the adhesion phenotype observed with the primary cultures can be time-in-culture dependent, as a difference is not seen in focal adhesions of HBC cells grown longer-term in culture, such as observed in the fluorescence microscopy. These results indicate subtle variance in these pathways that are uncovered in short-term culture acute settings but compensated for, and lost in longer-term culture experiments. Lastly, as cell adhesion is intricately linked to apoptosis, we performed a dose-response assay for TNF-related apoptosis inducing ligand (TRAIL) and control drugs that target cell growth, such as ErbB antagonists, on these cells. While we saw no difference in response of control and HBC normal epithelial cells to drugs that target growth response pathways not closely related to cell adhesion (FIGS. 8-21), we saw a significantly increased response of HBC cells to TRAIL when compared to control cells (p-value<0.001, FIGS. 20B and 22). As previous studies link a decrease in cell adhesion to increased responsiveness to TRAIL, this result supports the hypothesis that HBC patient cells have dysregulated cell adhesion phenotypes.

Empirical Gene-Expression Biomarker Robustly Predicts Hereditary Breast Cancer Development

Women from HBC families face greater uncertainty regarding their personal risk than the general population. Various risk-prediction models based on clinical and/or genomic data have been proposed, yet the discriminatory accuracy of these models has been modest (AUC 0.56-0.66). As the data highlight the ability of gene expression profiling to classify affected HBC women from controls using pathway-specific gene sets and to identify novel signaling events potentially involved in HBC development, optimizing HBC risk prediction using a minimally invasive empirical biomarker derived from all human genes measured in the peripheral blood was next. Specifically, the analysis was not limited to genes from any single, literature-based pathway; instead all genes for which expression measurements were available were used. Gene subsets that best differentiated HBC individuals from controls were identified using the Support Vector Machines-Recursive Feature Elimination (SVM-RFE) algorithm, and the SVM algorithm was used to predict HBC status. Initially, this approach was evaluated in the Utah cohort via cross validation, and the data showed consistently higher probabilities of HBC development in women from HBC families who had developed a tumor versus controls, attaining an AUC value (equivalent to discriminatory accuracy) of 0.763 (FIG. 23A-B). In repeated cross-validation (see Methods), it was observed that on average the best results were attained using 250 genes, yet the accuracy was consistently high independent of gene number (FIG. 24). As a negative control, the analysis was repeated using randomly permuted class labels and show the biomarker accuracy was highly significant (p=0.002, FIG. 25).

To test the empirical biomarker derived from the Utah dataset, HBC development was predicted in the independent dataset described above from Ontario. Specifically, the predictive model was trained solely on the Utah data; the fixed model for prediction of HBC development status was then tested on the Ontario samples. Very similar to the Utah results, these predictions attained an AUC of 0.733 (permutation p-value=0.019; FIGS. 23C-D and 26). The high predictive accuracy of these results was consistent even though these cohorts were from distinct geographical regions. Importantly, the data were processed in two different facilities, and many women from the Ontario cohort had not yet experienced menopause. The predictive capability of the empirical biomarker indicates that even though individuals from HBC families carry highly unique genomic profiles, common transcriptional patterns are detectable across families and even populations. Interestingly, many genes in the empirical biomarker are involved in regulation of cell-cell adhesion and cell-ECM interactions, including DSC1, FN1, ST6GALNAC5, TP63, SHB, and WNT3. Together, these results indicate that the germline transcriptome can identify biological processes that influence HBC risk and serve as a biomarker for individualized assessment of HBC risk.

Discussion

Since the discovery of BRCA1 and BRCA2 as breast cancer susceptibility genes, much focus has been placed on discovering additional DNA repair genes that influence HBC development. Ongoing efforts to genotype ever-larger cohorts also are yielding common susceptibility variants; however, in total, known susceptibility variants explain less than 30% of familial risk. Accordingly, additional studies are needed to identify the remaining drivers of HBC risk. In this study, a new approach for discovery of susceptibility factors using canonical pathways and multiple types of genomic data is addressed. The approach is based on the premise that genomic alterations—including DNA variants, epigenetic modifications, and non-coding RNA—cause gene-expression changes that influence tumor development and are observable in normal (non-malignant) cells. Such gene-expression patterns can help predict disease risk and identify signaling pathways associated with HBC. In particular, the pathway-based analyses revealed that cell adhesion and integrin signaling processes exhibit differential regulation between individuals who develop HBC and controls; these observations were consistent across multiple gene-expression data sets, protein-coding variants, and laboratory-based validations of non-malignant cells. These patterns were consistent for women who did or did not carry germline mutations in BRCA1 or BRCA2. In addition, perturbation of these pathways likely was not due to a prior cancer diagnosis or treatment because women with sporadic cancer did not show the same patterns of pathway dysregulation in the gene-expression analyses.

Nguyen-Ngoc, et al. have shown that mammary epithelial cells transition to carcinoma cells when two conditions are met: 1) a cell adhesion gene has been deleted and 2) the basement membrane is disrupted such that the cells are exposed to collagen 1. In these samples, suspected pathogenic variants occurred in various cell adhesion genes (FIG. 12), and consistently lower expression levels in HBC women compared to controls were observed in various cell adhesion genes, including ITGA6, PTK2, and NEO1 (FIGS. 27-29). While the validation studies focused on two key cell adhesion pathways (FIG. 12), various related pathways also performed consistently well and shared a small number of genes with each other. This indicates that the conclusions rely not on a particular set of genes but rather that they follow a consistent biological theme. Additionally, the peripheral blood-based gene expression profiles reflect immune responses that differ from what would be observed in primary breast tissue. To accommodate this, the Lim, et al. data was used in the analyses and performed the microscopy and cell adhesion assays; both experiments confirm dysregulation of cell adhesion pathways, consistent with the genomic analyses. Of interest, the pathway analyses also pointed to other biological processes that have a plausible connection to cancer susceptibility. For example, several KEGG pathways that represent cancer-signaling networks were ranked highly. These findings are consistent with a recent study showing pathway-based enrichment of cancer (and cell adhesion) pathways in DNA methylation profiles of women who developed familial breast cancer. The cancer related pathways identified in the study include genes known to play diverse roles in regulating cellular proliferation, differentiation, and cell adhesion; these pathways include well-known cancer genes such as ERBB2, EGFR, PIK3CA, MYC, and JUN. Accordingly, the results indicate that women who develop HBC can begin life with a higher rate of aberrantly expressed genes and/or mutations in pathways that drive tumorigenesis and that these conditions increase the likelihood that tumors will arise as somatic insults accumulate.

Current clinical standards define a woman's risk based on population averages, and a strict surveillance regimen is recommended to high-risk individuals that typically includes twice-yearly physical exams and yearly mammograms and MRIs. The biomarker presented here has the ability to provide a risk assessment for each individual; therefore, women within the same family could be assigned different risks based on their genomic profile, leading to more personalized treatment decisions. These personalized risk assessments can provide reassurance for women who are not as highly predisposed and who may opt then for monitoring and chemoprevention rather than prophylactic mastectomy or oophorectomy; alternatively, a high predictive risk can provide evidence to support more aggressive prophylactic or preventive intervention.

Methods Description of Patient Cohorts and Data Sets Utah

Participants were recruited via the High Risk Breast Cancer Clinic at the Huntsman Cancer Institute (Utah, USA) under IRB approved protocols (#00022886 and #4965). Blood samples were collected after breast cancer occurrence and were obtained when participants were in remission for at least six months. Participants were considered to have a family history of breast cancer if two or more first-degree relatives (mother, sister, daughter) had been diagnosed with breast cancer. Among 83 individuals in the Utah cohort who had a family history of breast cancer, 39 had been diagnosed with breast cancer (“HBC affected”), whereas 44 women were at least 54 years of age (average age=62) and had never been diagnosed with breast cancer. Of the 83 participants, 37 carried a pathogenic variant in BRCA1 or BRCA2. In addition, 41 individuals with no known family history of breast cancer were identified, 22 of whom had developed sporadic breast cancer. There was no significant difference in the age at which blood was drawn (p-value=0.73). RNA from peripheral blood was processed within two hours, and RNA was used for expression-array analyses following confirmation of RNA quality.

Reduction mammoplasty cells (n=9) and normal cells from prophylactic surgeries (n=15) for high-risk women were obtained in cooperation with the Breast Disease Oriented Team and Tissue Resource and Applications Core at the Huntsman Cancer Institute (IRB #10924). Family history status was determined via examination of medical health records.

Ontario

De-identified samples were also obtained via the Ontario, Canada site of the Breast Cancer Family Registry (BCFR). This cohort included 28 samples from women who had developed HBC, 32 from women with a family history who had not developed breast cancer, 8 from women who developed sporadic breast cancer, and 5 from women who had no known family history and had not developed cancer. Of these 73 women, approximately half were post-menopausal, as with the Utah cohort, whereas the remaining women were premenopausal. Blood samples were obtained, isolated, and stored when the women first enrolled in the BCFR before menopause onset and before cancer diagnosis.

TCGA

Exome-sequencing data was downloaded for 611 samples from TCGA via the Cancer Genomics Hub (cghub.ucsc.edu). Fifty-seven samples were derived from normal breast tissue, whereas the remaining samples were derived from peripheral blood. This population was used as a control group—containing mostly sporadic breast cancer cases—against which variant frequencies could be compared. Variants were detected in these samples using the same pipeline that was used to detect variants in the Utah samples, thus reducing potential confounding effects due to technology differences.

Genomic Data Acquisition

PBMCs were isolated from whole blood in cell preparation tubes following manufacturer protocol (Becton-Dickinson). RNA was then extracted using the RiboPure RNA Isolation Kit and hybridized to Affymetrix Genechip Human Exon 1.0 ST microarrays. Raw data files have been deposited in Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) under accession number for the SuperSeries GSE47862.

Gene-expression data representing normal breast-tissue expression were downloaded from GEO (GSE17072). These data were obtained using the Illumina HumanWG-6 v3.0 expression beadchip. We used these data in preprocessed form as provided by the authors.

Genomic DNA from peripheral blood was also used for exome sequencing. At the Huntsman Cancer Institute, genomic DNA was hybridized using Agilent SureSelect Human All Exon v4+UTRs kits. Captured libraries were sequenced on an Illumina Hi-Seq 2000 instrument, and barcoding techniques were used for multiplexing (seven lanes, five samples per lane). This process resulted in 101-bp paired-end reads (58,032,900 unique reads per sample).

Microarray Data Normalization and Filtering

To correct for array- and probe-level background noise, the Single-channel Array Normalization (SCAN) algorithm was applied; this method is applied to each sample individually, thus averting intersample biases and computational processing limits that can arise with multisample normalization techniques. Probes were subsequently filtered using the PLANdbAffy database, which assigns quality labels to probes based on cross-hybridization potential, location of probes within genes, and whether SNVs fall within target regions. Any probe that was not classified as “green” or that mapped to an SNV was excluded. For each array, the remaining 2,201,005 probes were summarized into gene-level values using a 10% trimmed mean; genes that contained fewer than five probes were discarded.

Because the microarrays had been hybridized and scanned in different facilities and at different times, ComBat was used to adjust for potential confounding effects that might arise due to these differences. Prior to biomarker derivation (see below), the Ontario and Utah samples were adjusted for batch using cohort and processing facility to define the batches.

To identify blood markers that could influence mRNA expression but that are unlikely related to HBC development, a total lymphocyte enumeration test for the blood draw used in the study could be used. This test provides total counts of CD4-positive T cells, CD8-positive T-cells, CD3-positive T-cells, B-cells and NK-cells. These counts were available for 22 samples in the Utah cohort. Furthermore, epidemiological and demographic data was obtained via a health-assessment survey for 63 patients in the Utah cohort (there was not a health survey for sporadic cancer and normal controls); these factors were age, education level, marital status, religious preference, health status, physical activity, age at menarche, contraceptive use, total number of pregnancies, total number of live births, age at first live birth, age at last live birth, breastfeeding status, time since last menstrual period, age when menstrual periods stopped, chemopreventive drug use (selective estrogen receptor modulators), alcohol use, tobacco use, occupational history, immunological disorder history, hypertension drug use, and anti-inflammatory drug use. Using a multifactor ANCOVA model, genes whose expression patterns correlated with any of these variables at a 0.01 significance level were excluded. For a subset of 34 participants, exome sequencing was also performed. One additional individual that was not profiled for the gene-expression analyses was added to the exome-sequencing cohort. See Table 7. Where gene expression values were compared among groups for a given gene, p-values were calculated using a one-way analysis of variance test.

Exome Variant Filtering and Aggregation

Exome-capture sequencing was used to profile 35 women from the Utah cohort. In prior commercial genetic testing, pathogenic BRCA1 or BRCA2 variants had been observed in 17 of the women; the remaining “BRCAX” women had tested negative for BRCA1/2 variants. Within the entire cohort, 19 women had developed early-onset breast cancer; the remaining women had not been diagnosed with breast cancer and were at least 54 years old.

Reads were aligned to the hg19 human reference genome using the Burrows-Wheeler Aligner software (BWA, version 0.6.1). Duplicate reads were marked using Picard tools (v. 1.64, picard.sourceforge.net/), and reads were sorted and indexed using samtools (v. 0.1.18). Using the Genome Analysis Toolkit (GATK, v. 1.5.3), reads were subsequently passed through various processing steps to realign and recalibrate the reads and then to detect SNVs and short InDels; the GATK Best Practice Variant Detection guide was followed. The TCGA samples were analyzed at a later date, so newer software versions (Picard 1.82 and GATK 2.3.4) were used.

On average per sample, 5,848,610,129 bases aligned to the reference genome, and 88.24% of bases fell within exome-capture target regions, resulting in a mean target coverage of 58.10. Across all samples, variants were observed at 1,796,343 unique loci (1,579,855 SNVs and 216,488 InDels).

Multiple criteria were used to filter the initial variant call set (FIG. 13). Any variant for which a minor-allele frequency greater than one percent had been reported in any ethnic population in either the 1000 Genomes (phase 1, release 3) or Exome Sequencing Project 6500 data (evs.gs.washington.edu/EVS) were excluded. Additionally, GATK was used to identify variants in the TCGA germline samples that had a minor-allele frequency greater than three percent—a higher threshold was used for TCGA because this population was likely enriched for susceptibility variants. Finally, variants were excluded that occurred in more than 15% of the samples.

Next variants were excluded that fell outside exons (plus/minus two bases to allow for detection of splice-site mutations) used in each gene's primary transcript; gene/transcript definitions were extracted from Entrez Gene. The remaining variants were annotated for protein-coding effect using snpEff. Variants that were assigned a severity level of “MODIFIER” or “LOW” were excluded. Any variant that was assigned a “HIGH” severity was retained; these consisted primarily of truncating, frameshift, and splice-site variants (FIG. 30). “MODERATE” InDels were also retained. Nonsynonymous coding SNVs were further examined using Condel. Any missense SNV called as neutral was excluded. The remaining variants constituted the final set of “suspected pathogenic” variants. For simplicity, heterozygous variants and homozygous-rare variants were considered to have an equivalent effect; the great majority of variants were heterozygous.

After filtering, 6,573 variants (average of 167.1 SNVs and 20.7 InDels per sample) were observed at 5,222 loci. Most variants were non-synonymous substitutions (FIG. 30). The most frequent substitutions were G-to-A and C-to-T transitions (FIG. 31). The average transition/transversion ratio was 2.35. Most InDels resulted in a net gain/loss of less than seven nucleotides; however, a few were larger (FIG. 10).

To assess the validity of the variant calls, they were compared against PCR-based, commercial genetic test results for BRCA1 and BRCA2. We observed only one false-negative call and two false-positive calls. The false-negative variant (rs80358061) resides in a BRCA1 intronic region outside the splice-site junction points. This variant was identified by the pipeline; however, it was filtered out due to its intronic location. The false positives (rs28897683 and rs80356935) are non-synonymous SNVs that lie outside the BRCT and RING domains of the BRCA1 protein and thus are likely not to be pathogenic despite evolutionary conservation; neither individual from the study who carried a false-positive variant developed cancer, and one had a known pathogenic variant in BRCA2. Additionally, the exome-sequencing analysis identified one individual who carried a pathogenic BRCA2 variant that had not been observed in commercial genetic testing. Subsequent clinical follow-up confirmed the presence of this variant.

To enhance biological interpretation, variants were aggregated at the gene and pathway levels. If a given sample carried any suspected pathogenic variant in a given gene or pathway, that gene or pathway was considered to be “mutated” (typically, a gene had no more than a single variant in a given sample). Under the assumption that frequently mutated genes are unlikely to drive susceptibility due to selective pressure and thus constitute noise at the pathway level, genes that are mutated relatively frequently were excluded. For this step, the 611 germline samples from TCGA were used. Based on gene-mutation frequencies in the TCGA data, genes from the data set that were mutated in more than 1.8% of TCGA germline samples (except BRCA1/2 because the samples were intentionally enriched for mutations in these genes) were excluded. This threshold was selected based on the maximal difference in number of excluded genes for thresholds that fell between 0.2% and 10%. After excluding these genes, the number of “mutated” pathways in the data dropped considerably from 63.0 to 30.0 per patient (FIG. 13). By processing these samples on the same pipeline that was used to process the other samples, systematic biases that can arise due to differences in variant-calling pipelines were avoided. Consequently, variants/genes were identified that were mutated frequently but that had not been identified in the other databases that were queried. Comparisons between the number of mutated and non-mutated samples were performed using a one-sided Fisher's exact test.

Biomarker Development

Biomarkers were derived in two successive steps: 1) the most discriminatory genes were identified using the SVM-RFE algorithm, then 2) the SVM algorithm was used to generate a probability that each patient belonged to the HBC group. Genes that ranked in the top 25, 50, 75, 100, 125 . . . 300 (when that many were available) of the SVM-RFE iterations were used in the SVM models, and the number of genes included in the SVM models was optimized via internal cross validation.

The quality of the models was assessed via ten-fold cross validation for the Utah cohort and via a training/testing design for the Ontario cohorts. (In training/testing, gene selection and optimization were performed via nested cross validation on the Utah data only.) HBC probabilities were compared against known classes (HBC or not), and an AUC value was calculated. In this context, the AUC quantifies the model's ability to discriminate the groups at various HBC probability thresholds; it can be interpreted as the frequency with which the model would assign two randomly selected patients to the correct group. To assess the robustness of the models, cross validation was repeated 1,000 times using different random seeds. Empirical p-values were also generated by repeating the analysis 1,000 times with permuted class labels.

Pathway-Level Gene-Expression Analysis

Gene-pathway relationships were obtained from two literature-curated sources. KEGG pathways were downloaded directly from the KEGG FTP site. The remaining gene lists were obtained from the Molecular Signatures Database (v3.0), which aggregates pathways from various sources, including REACTOME (reactome.org) and Biocarta (biocarta.com).

The microarray data and exome-sequencing data was evaluated at the pathway level to identify pathways most likely to influence HBC development when deregulated. For the microarray data, SVM models were derived to predict HBC status using the biomarker development methodology described in the previous subsection, except that the models were derived only from genes that belonged to a given pathway. SVM-RFE was also used to identify the most relevant genes within each pathway. A p-value was then derived for a given pathway by comparing the AUC observed for that pathway against AUCs observed after randomly shuffling the class labels (1,000 permutations); the p-value was calculated as the fraction of permuted AUCs higher than the non-permuted AUCs.

The Lim, et al. data were analyzed in a similar way. Which patients would eventually develop breast cancer was not known and therefore expression patterns between those who carried a family history of breast cancer and those who did not were compared.

Correlation Between Sequencing Variants and Gene Expression

For the samples that were profiled using both technologies, the relationship between variants in a given gene and expression of that gene was estimated using Spearman's rank correlation coefficient. A threshold was determined using a local False Discovery Rate approach. Variants with absolute correlation coefficients more extreme than this threshold were considered to be associated with expression of that gene.

Drug Response Assays

Normal mammary epithelial cells isolated from either high-risk women undergoing prophylactic mastectomy or control women with no family history of breast cancer undergoing breast-reduction surgery for non-cancer related health issues were isolated, and single-cell suspensions were generated. 1500 cells/well for each patient samples were plated in 40 microliters of MEBM basal media supplemented with a MEGM Bulletkit [Lonza] in half-well 96-well plates [Nunc] in triplicate for each drug dose. After 24 hours, TRAIL, Afatinib, Gefitinib, and EGF were added. The indicated doses were chosen within the average linear range of drug effect: TRAIL (0.1 ng/mL-5.0 ng/ml), Afatinib (10 nM-1 mM), Gefitinib (0.001 mM-0.5 mM), EGF (5 ng/mL-500 ng/mL) [Millipore (TRAIL) and Selleckchem]. A BIOMEK 3000 (Beckman Coulter, Brea, Calif., USA) robot was used to seed the cells and dispense the drugs. After 96 hours, cell viability was quantified using the CellTiter-Glo Luminescent Cell Viability Assay [Promega]. The proportion of viable cells was calculated for each dosage by comparing against cell counts for non-treated cells. A summary value was calculated for each cell line as the slope of a linear-regression line fitted to the cell-count proportions.

Cell Adhesion Assays

For the cell adhesion assay, 96-well plates were pre-coated overnight with 1 ug/ml human laminin [Millipore], which were washed in PBS prior to cell plating. 3000 cells from single-cell suspensions for high-risk affected women or breast reduction controls were plated per well, and the average number of viable cells adhering to the plate after three hours across the replicates was compared against total cell counts of viable cells after 14 hours using CellTiter-Glo Luminescent Cell Viability Assay [Promega]. All p-values were calculated using a two-sided t-test.

Microscopy

Cells were seeded into multi-well slide chambers [Lab-Tek II CC2 Slide, 8 chambers] and grown in MEBM basal media supplemented with a MEGM BulletKit [Lonza] for 3-5 days. Cells were fixed (3.7% formaldehyde, 15 mins), permeabilized (0.5% TritonX-100, 5 mins), and stained for F-actin (Alexa-Fluor568-phalloidin 1:150 [Molecular Probes]), focal adhesions (Vinculin mouse antibody V-9131 1:1000 [Sigma]), with secondary antibodies AlexaFluor488-anti-mouse 1:200 and nuclei (Dapi 0.3 uM). Coverslips were mounted in Mowiol [Sigma]. Cell images were captured with a Zeiss AxioCamMRm camera on a Zeiss Axioskop2 mot plus microscope (40× dry objective, 0.75 NA) using Zeiss AxioVision 4.8.1 software. Normal primary cells from each of the 24 patient cell cultures were captured and analyzed in a blinded manner.

Software

All software scripts that were used for this study have been aggregated into a software pipeline that can be executed on UNIX-based systems. This pipeline can be accessed at github.com/srp33/BCSP.

SVM-RFE was executed using the SVMAttributeEval module within the Weka software package. It was configured to remove 10% of genes in each iteration. When less than 1% of genes remained, a single gene was removed per iteration. Otherwise, default configuration settings were used. The e1071 R package (cran.r-project.org/package=e1071) was used for SVM predictions. In deriving the models, the radial-basis-function kernel was selected and the C parameter was tuned via internal cross validation. Additionally, the ML-Flex software package enabled the analyses to be executed in parallel on a high-performance computing cluster.

The fdrtool package was used to calculate False Discovery Rates. The Python programming language (python.org) was used for parsing and summarizing data files. A pre-release version of the SCAN software for exon microarray normalization was used; this version is included in the software pipeline.

Microscope images were processed using Adobe Photoshop v.8 and Illustrator CS v.11. Original image files are available from io.genetics.utah.edu/files/BCSP_Microscope_Images/.

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TABLE 1 Utah1 FC Summary Down Entrez Fold Gene ID Gene Symbol Gene Name Change Description 87688 RPL7AP50 ribosomal protein L7a pseudogene 50 0.87836 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 391106 VDAC1P9 voltage-dependent anion channel 1 pseudogene 9 0.96278 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 646272 LOC646272 cytochrome b-c1 complex subunit 8-like 0.94686 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 286495 TTC3P1 tetratricopeptide repeat domain 3 pseudogene 1 0.95788 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 541468 C1orf190 chromosome 1 open reading frame 190 0.95272 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100132626 LOC100132626 protein FAM103A1-like 0.95852 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 440278 CATSPER2P1 cation channel, sperm associated 2 pseudogene 1 0.93409 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 390155 OR5T1 olfactory receptor, family 5, subfamily T, member 1 0.97737 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 641518 LOC641518 hypothetical LOC641518 0.93179 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 28869 IGKV6D-41 immunoglobulin kappa variable 6D-41 (non- 0.98400 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer functional) 55604 LRRC16A leucine rich repeat containing 16A 0.97138 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 3809 KIR2DS4 killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptor, two 0.90156 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer domains, short cytoplasmic tail, 4 51266 CLEC1B C-type lectin domain family 1, member B 0.85298 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100129822 [No Symbol] [No Name] 0.96743 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 55270 NUDT15 nudix (nucleoside diphosphate linked moiety 0.94819 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer X)-type motif 15 339778 C2orf70 chromosome 2 open reading frame 70 0.98356 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 348825 TPRXL tetra-peptide repeat homeobox-like 0.98578 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 221016 CCDC7 coiled-coil domain containing 7 0.91474 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 647034 RPS14P10 ribosomal protein S14 pseudogene 10 0.92096 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 3805 KIR2DL4 killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptor, 0.98442 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer two domains, long cytoplasmic tail, 4 7380 UPK3A uroplakin 3A 0.96288 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 642677 LOC642677 family with sequence similarity 154, member 0.94190 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer B pseudogene 340547 VSIG1 V-set and immunoglobulin domain containing 1 0.89445 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 51499 TRIAP1 TP53 regulated inhibitor of apoptosis 1 0.91981 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 728707 [No Symbol] [No Name] 0.95041 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 130813 C2orf50 chromosome 2 open reading frame 50 0.96590 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100132310 LOC100132310 FCF1 small subunit (SSU) processome component 0.96241 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer homolog (S. cerevisiae) pseudogene 390282 LOC390282 eukaryotic translation initiation factor 3, 0.92785 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer subunit F pseudogene 100128646 RPL10AP7 ribosomal protein L10a pseudogene 7 0.97663 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 54035 PSMD4P1 proteasome (prosome, macropain) 26S subunit, 0.94461 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer non-ATPase, 4 pseudogene 1 8228 PNPLA4 patatin-like phospholipase domain containing 4 0.94592 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 9363 RAB33A RAB33A, member RAS oncogene family 0.97583 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 344887 LOC344887 NmrA-like family domain containing 1 pseudogene 0.98782 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 339736 AK2P2 adenylate kinase 2 pseudogene 2 0.95816 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 90499 LOC90499 hypothetical protein LOC90499 0.94649 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 79625 C4orf31 chromosome 4 open reading frame 31 0.98147 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 326617 PSMA3P proteasome (prosome, macropain) subunit, 0.96648 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer alpha type, 3 pseudogene 3812 KIR3DL2 killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptor, 0.97100 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer three domains, long cytoplasmic tail, 2 100129958 KRT8P44 keratin 8 pseudogene 44 0.97648 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 5054 SERPINE1 serpin peptidase inhibitor, clade E (nexin, 0.95359 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer plasminogen activator inhibitor type 1), member 1 100037267 LOC100037267 developmental pluripotency associated 4 pseudogene 0.96417 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 219623 TMEM26 transmembrane protein 26 0.98584 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 9241 NOG noggin 0.82436 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100128050 LOC100128050 WD repeat domain 77 pseudogene 0.96080 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100127889 C10orf131 chromosome 10 open reading frame 131 0.96310 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 729451 LOC729451 hypothetical protein LOC729451 0.88014 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 201798 TIGD4 tigger transposable element derived 4 0.97953 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 64410 KLHL25 kelch-like 25 (Drosophila) 0.97533 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 442524 DPY19L2P3 dpy-19-like 2 pseudogene 3 (C. elegans) 0.96594 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 259286 TAS2R40 taste receptor, type 2, member 40 0.96512 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 731039 [No Symbol] [No Name] 0.97693 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 401703 LOC401703 splicing factor U2AF 35 kDa subunit-like 0.96591 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100130859 [No Symbol] [No Name] 0.95802 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 26 ABP1 amilonde binding protein 1 (amine oxidase 0.98467 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer (copper-containing)) 347051 SLC10A5 solute carrier family 10 (sodium/bile acid 0.96335 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer cotransporter family), member 5 144715 RAD9B RAD9 homolog B (S. pombe) 0.95746 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 387856 C12orf68 chromosome 12 open reading frame 68 0.96793 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 84833 USMG5 up-regulated during skeletal muscle growth 5 0.92975 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer homolog (mouse) 148645 C1orf211 chromosome 1 open reading frame 211 0.98681 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 400576 FLJ45831 hypothetical FLJ45831 0.98243 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 84332 DYDC2 DPY30 domain containing 2 0.97996 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 56891 LGALS14 lectin, galactoside-binding, soluble, 14 0.97194 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100128403 [No Symbol] [No Name] 0.98170 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 730109 LOC730109 hypothetical protein LOC730109 0.98596 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100131568 LOC100131568 RNA binding motif protein 43 pseudogene 0.96482 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100132805 [No Symbol] [No Name] 0.98826 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 7012 TERC telomerase RNA component 0.89933 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 729950 LOC729950 hypothetical LOC729950 0.97018 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 79022 TMEM106C transmembrane protein 106C 0.90028 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 144608 C12orf60 chromosome 12 open reading frame 60 0.97242 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 91582 RPS19BP1 ribosomal protein S19 binding protein 1 0.92038 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 388507 ZNF788 zinc finger family member 788 0.96818 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 4112 MAGEB1 melanoma antigen family B, 1 0.98272 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 2841 GPR18 G protein-coupled receptor 18 0.90221 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 646895 [No Symbol] [No Name] 0.91585 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 400165 C13orf35 chromosome 13 open reading frame 35 0.96640 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 284348 LYPD5 LY6/PLAUR domain containing 5 0.98710 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 6555 SLC10A2 solute carrier family 10 (sodium/bile acid 0.98761 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer cotransporter family), member 2 151258 SLC38A11 solute carrier family 38, member 11 0.96230 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 646316 TERF1P3 telomeric repeat binding factor (NIMA- 0.94636 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer interacting) 1 pseudogene 3 388649 C1orf146 chromosome 1 open reading frame 146 0.97890 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100128417 [No Symbol] [No Name] 0.96758 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 54033 RBM11 RNA binding motif protein 11 0.94485 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 26256 CABYR calcium binding tyrosine-(Y)-phosphorylation 0.96896 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer regulated 100129077 [No Symbol] [No Name] 0.98416 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 222962 SLC29A4 solute carrier family 29 (nucleoside 0.95925 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer transporters), member 4 644588 DNAJA1P3 DnaJ (Hsp40) homolog, subfamily A, member 1 0.95825 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer pseudogene 3 153893 LOC153893 DCN1, defective in cullin neddylation 1, 0.97614 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer domain containing 1 (S. cerevisiae) pseudogene 51616 TAF9B TAF9B RNA polymerase II, TATA box binding 0.90443 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer protein (TBP)-associated factor, 31 kDa 645086 LOC645086 chromosome 11 open reading frame 58 pseudogene 0.95211 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100130748 LOC100130748 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-Coenzyme A hydrolase 0.98703 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer pseudogene 147657 ZNF480 zinc finger protein 480 0.91736 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 390860 LOC390860 ribosomal protein, large, P0 pseudogene 0.96564 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 28466 IGHV1-45 immunoglobulin heavy variable 1-45 0.97065 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 1823 DSC1 desmocollin 1 0.89531 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 119 ADD2 adducin 2 (beta) 0.98577 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 55906 ZC4H2 zinc finger, C4H2 domain containing 0.94259 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 123862 LOC123862 interferon induced transmembrane protein pseudogene 0.95430 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 1266 CNN3 calponin 3, acidic 0.97602 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 441502 RPS26P11 ribosomal protein S26 pseudogene 11 0.89168 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 57570 TRMT5 TRM5 tRNA methyltransferase 5 homolog 0.92717 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer (S. cerevisiae) 388182 FLJ42289 hypothetical LOC388182 0.96063 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 64838 FNDC4 fibronectin type III domain containing 4 0.99459 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100126481 TRNAI-AAU transfer RNA isoleucine (anticodon AAU) 0.98650 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 55702 CCDC94 coiled-coil domain containing 94 0.93784 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 730058 LOC730058 UPF0621 protein C-like 0.96916 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 728545 [No Symbol] [No Name] 0.92791 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 51186 WBP5 WW domain binding protein 5 0.96834 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 85352 KIAA1644 KIAA1644 0.97770 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 7643 ZNF90 zinc finger protein 90 0.97669 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100128122 LOC100128122 Cas-Br-M (murine) ecotropic retroviral 0.97337 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer transforming sequence-like 1 pseudogene 100129444 [No Symbol] [No Name] 0.95460 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 1424 CRYGGP crystallin, gamma G, pseudogene 0.96815 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100129945 LOC100129945 lupus La protein-like 0.97758 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 653492 PSG10P pregnancy specific beta-1-glycoprotein 10, pseudogene 0.97264 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 119391 GSTO2 glutathione S-transferase omega 2 0.97955 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100130623 [No Symbol] [No Name] 0.99692 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100129837 [No Symbol] [No Name] 0.99866 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 441964 [No Symbol] [No Name] 0.98827 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 729868 [No Symbol] [No Name] 0.97418 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 3053 SERPIND1 serpin peptidase inhibitor, clade D (heparin 0.98200 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer cofactor), member 1 83844 USP26 ubiquitin specific peptidase 26 0.96043 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 9397 NMT2 N-myristoyltransferase 2 0.92727 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 197370 NSMCE1 non-SMC element 1 homolog (S. cerevisiae) 0.95993 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 1068 CETN1 centrin, EF-hand protein, 1 0.95410 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 166752 FREM3 FRAS1 related extracellular matrix 3 0.99312 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 3625 INHBB inhibin, beta B 0.95366 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 80086 TUBA4B tubulin, alpha 4b (pseudogene) 0.98422 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100131056 [No Symbol] [No Name] 0.98376 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 26590 OR8B7P olfactory receptor, family 8, subfamily B, 0.97829 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer member 7 pseudogene 767579 SNORD114-3 small nucleolar RNA, C/D box 114-3 0.95780 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100129046 LOC100129046 hypothetical LOC100129046 0.97470 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 10127 ZNF263 zinc finger protein 263 0.93963 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 84996 C21orf119 chromosome 21 open reading frame 119 0.95791 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 5988 RFPL1 ret finger protein-like 1 0.97369 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 81050 OR5AC2 olfactory receptor, family 5, subfamily AC, member 2 0.97482 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer

TABLE 2 Utah1 FC Summary Up Entrez Fold Gene ID Gene Symbol Gene Name Change Description 100128709 [No Symbol] [No Name] 1.05850 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100128700 [No Symbol] [No Name] 1.03000 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 392282 RPS5P6 ribosomal protein S5 pseudogene 6 1.02827 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 83604 TMEM47 transmembrane protein 47 1.02085 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 400954 EML6 echinoderm microtubule associated protein like 6 1.02327 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 647298 HSPD1P8 heat shock 60 kDa protein 1 (chaperonin) pseudogene 8 1.01504 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100128493 LOC100128493 ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme E2 variant 2 pseudogene 1.03824 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 128774 MRPS11P1 mitochondrial ribosomal protein S11 pseudogene 1 1.03087 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 149157 [No Symbol] [No Name] 1.02750 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 7473 WNT3 wingless-type MMTV integration site family, member 3 1.01553 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 54436 SH3TC1 SH3 domain and tetratricopeptide repeats 1 1.03083 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 5999 RGS4 regulator of G-protein signaling 4 1.02586 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 449518 LOC449518 purinergic receptor P2Y, G-protein coupled, 10 1.04589 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer pseudogene 79825 CCDC48 coiled-coil domain containing 48 1.01918 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 442673 TUBG1P tubulin, gamma 1 pseudogene 1.04787 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100131609 HNRNPA1P2 heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein A1 1.05136 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer pseudogene 2 389428 RPL5P18 ribosomal protein L5 pseudogene 18 1.05885 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100128386 LOC100128386 hypothetical LOC100128386 1.02361 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 649489 LOC649489 protein phosphatase 1, regulatory (inhibitor) 1.02506 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer subunit 2 pseudogene 643586 LOC643586 pyruvate kinase, muscle pseudogene 1.03424 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 283314 MATL2963 hypothetical LOC283314 1.03595 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 408029 C2orf27B chromosome 2 open reading frame 27B 1.02973 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 10461 MERTK c-mer proto-oncogene tyrosine kinase 1.03881 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 10877 CFHR4 complement factor H-related 4 1.03294 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 283571 PROX2 prospero homeobox 2 1.01521 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100129915 [No Symbol] [No Name] 1.01662 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 3426 CFI complement factor I 1.01805 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 780813 PAICSP4 phosphoribosylaminoimidazole carboxylase, 1.01634 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer phosphoribosylaminoimidazole succinocarboxamide synthetase pseudogene 4 729486 IL9RP3 interleukin 9 receptor pseudogene 3 1.04554 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 401433 LOC401433 hypothetical LOC401433 1.03820 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 286122 C8orf31 chromosome 8 open reading frame 31 1.02932 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 219902 TMEM136 transmembrane protein 136 1.01357 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 199713 NLRP7 NLR family, pyrin domain containing 7 1.03336 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 1769 DNAH8 dynein, axonemal, heavy chain 8 1.01179 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100130249 PP2672 hypothetical LOC100130249 1.04144 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 163778 SPRR4 small proline-rich protein 4 1.05947 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 148641 SLC35F3 solute carrier family 35, member F3 1.01311 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 400347 LOC400347 REX4, RNA exonuclease 4 homolog (S. cerevisiae) 1.03336 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer pseudogene 347333 KRT8P14 keratin 8 pseudogene 14 1.00982 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 121270 OR11M1P olfactory receptor, family 11, subfamily M, member 1 1.06053 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer pseudogene 6461 SHB Src homology 2 domain containing adaptor protein B 1.01215 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 4744 NEFH neuro filament, heavy polypeptide 1.01566 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 729041 LOC729041 fatty-acid amide hydrolase 1-like 1.04385 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 2335 FN1 fibronectin 1 1.02499 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 644915 METTL15P2 methyltransferase like 15 pseudogene 2 1.01990 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100132086 LOC100132086 adenylate kinase isoenzyme 6-like 1.02578 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 2596 GAP43 growth associated protein 43 1.01796 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 646576 LOC646576 hypothetical LOC646576 1.00778 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 644662 LOC644662 hypothetical protein LOC644662 1.01804 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 339983 NAT8L N-acetyltransferase 8-like (GCN5-related, putative) 1.02554 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 130013 ACMSD aminocarboxymuconate semialdehyde decarboxylase 1.02182 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 440603 BCL2L15 BCL2-like 15 1.02400 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 152078 C3orf55 chromosome 3 open reading frame 55 1.02245 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 201895 C4orf34 chromosome 4 open reading frame 34 1.02999 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 221711 SYCP2L synaptonemal complex protein 2-like 1.03038 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 8829 NRP1 neuropilin 1 1.01069 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 1472 CST4 cystatin S 1.05145 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100128389 [No Symbol] [No Name] 1.04353 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 118663 BTBD16 BTB (POZ) domain containing 16 1.01455 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 6887 TAL2 T-cell acute lymphocytic leukemia 2 1.03352 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 50835 TAS2R9 taste receptor, type 2, member 9 1.02523 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 4157 MC1R melanocortin 1 receptor (alpha melanocyte 1.03616 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer stimulating hormone receptor) 785 CACNB4 calcium channel, voltage-dependent, beta 4 subunit 1.01724 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100130268 LOC100130268 similar to hCG1648866 1.03898 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100128457 LOC100128457 similar to hCG2026341 1.04522 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100132214 [No Symbol] [No Name] 1.04735 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 51676 ASB2 ankyrin repeat and SOCS box containing 2 1.01372 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 27145 FILIP1 filamin A interacting protein 1 1.02313 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100131819 [No Symbol] [No Name] 1.02809 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 728780 ANKDD1B ankyrin repeat and death domain containing 1B 1.01894 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 85481 PSKH2 protein serine kinase H2 1.01887 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100129106 [No Symbol] [No Name] 1.01457 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 78998 C8orf51 chromosome 8 open reading frame 51 1.03279 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 84099 ID2B inhibitor of DNA binding 2B, dominant negative 1.02669 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer helix-loop-helix protein (pseudogene) 644862 RPS28P3 ribosomal protein S28 pseudogene 3 1.03776 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 163183 C19orf46 chromosome 19 open reading frame 46 1.02242 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 326288 RPL17P4 ribosomal protein L17 pseudogene 4 1.04015 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100131042 [No Symbol] [No Name] 1.04994 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 139411 PTCHD1 patched domain containing 1 1.01407 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 4085 MAD2L1 MAD2 mitotic arrest deficient-like 1 (yeast) 1.01352 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 730126 [No Symbol] [No Name] 1.03615 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 606495 CYB5RL cytochrome b5 reductase-like 1.00749 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 653194 LOC653194 KH homology domain-containing protein 1-like 1.03238 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 26647 OR7E25P olfactory receptor, family 7, subfamily E, 1.03869 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer member 25 pseudogene 63974 NEUROD6 neurogenic differentiation 6 1.02163 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 25789 TMEM59L transmembrane protein 59-like 1.00625 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 353194 LOC353194 keratin pseudogene 1.03225 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 390084 OR56A5 olfactory receptor, family 56, subfamily A, member 5 1.03358 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 285555 C4orf37 chromosome 4 open reading frame 37 1.01344 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 23439 ATP1B4 ATPase, Na+/K+ transporting, beta 4 polypeptide 1.01288 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 644941 [No Symbol] [No Name] 1.06134 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 643669 LOC643669 hypothetical protein LOC643669 1.01596 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 130500 CISD1P1 CDGSH iron sulfur domain 1 pseudogene 1 1.03521 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 414318 C9orf106 chromosome 9 open reading frame 106 1.03024 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 10316 NMUR1 neuromedin U receptor 1 1.05132 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 55057 AIM1L absent in melanoma 1-like 1.01575 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100132053 RPL30P8 ribosomal protein L30 pseudogene 8 1.01456 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 441505 LOC441505 stress-induced-phosphoprotein 1 pseudogene 1.00827 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100128217 LOC100128217 general transcription factor IIIA pseudogene 1.00874 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 4342 MOS v-mos Moloney murine sarcoma viral oncogene homolog 1.01892 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 644489 [No Symbol] [No Name] 1.03232 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 4071 TM4SF1 transmembrane 4 L six family member 1 1.03137 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 25925 ZNF521 zinc finger protein 521 1.01135 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100131070 LOC100131070 mpv17-like protein 2-like 1.03546 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100128979 LOC100128979 hypothetical LOC100128979 1.03901 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 728050 [No Symbol] [No Name] 1.08112 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 55540 IL17RB interleukin 17 receptor B 1.01748 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 11341 SCRG1 stimulator of chondrogenesis 1 1.01927 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 7070 THY1 Thy-1 cell surface antigen 1.01532 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 130162 C2orf63 chromosome 2 open reading frame 63 1.01620 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 3394 IRF8 interferon regulatory factor 8 1.03235 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 3226 HOXC10 homeobox C10 1.01038 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 649288 AK4P6 adenylate kinase 4 pseudogene 6 1.03149 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 140691 TRIM69 tripartite motif containing 69 1.02117 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100132501 LOC100132501 hypothetical LOC100132501 1.01055 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 81849 ST6GALNAC5 ST6 (alpha-N-acetyl-neuraminyl-2,3-beta-galactosyl- 1.01527 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 1,3)-N-acetylgalactosaminide alpha-2,6- sialyltransferase 5 2151 F2RL2 coagulation factor II (thrombin) receptor-like 2 1.02926 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 574447 MIR146B microRNA 146b 1.03471 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 219429 OR4C11 olfactory receptor, family 4, subfamily C, member 11 1.02121 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100132073 LOC100132073 cyclin B2 pseudogene 1.03497 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 145259 RPSAP4 ribosomal protein SA pseudogene 4 1.01434 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 392288 LOC392288 micro tubule-associated proteins 1A/1B light 1.02050 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer chain 3B-like 285423 LOC285423 hypothetical LOC285423 1.01226 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 128820 CST9LP1 cystatin 9-like pseudogene 1 1.03984 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 149837 LOC149837 hypothetical LOC149837 1.01494 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 255403 ZNF718 zinc finger protein 718 1.03097 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 55808 ST6GALNAC1 ST6 (alpha-N-acetyl-neuraminyl-2,3-beta-galactosyl- 1.00581 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 1,3)-N-acetylgalactosaminide alpha-2,6- sialyltransferase 1 3626 INHBC inhibin, beta C 1.02582 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 390844 ARIH2P1 ariadne homolog 2 pseudogene 1 1.01615 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 7621 ZNF70 zinc finger protein 70 1.00639 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100132623 [No Symbol] [No Name] 1.03856 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 338017 KRT8P1 keratin 8 pseudogene 1 1.01192 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 143630 UBQLNL ubiquilin-like 1.02513 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 80097 MZT2B mitotic spindle organizing protein 2B 1.03085 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 806 CALM2P2 calmodulin 2 pseudogene 2 1.03895 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 51659 GINS2 GINS complex subunit 2 (Psf2 homolog) 1.01107 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 644464 RPSAP61 ribosomal protein SA pseudogene 61 1.04385 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 442192 DDX6P1 DEAD (Asp-Glu-Ala-Asp) box polypeptide 6 1.00649 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer pseudogene 1 338094 FAM151A family with sequence similarity 151, member A 1.02257 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 285987 DLX6-AS1 DLX6 antisense RNA 1 (non-protein coding) 1.02260 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100129427 LOC100129427 hypothetical LOC100129427 1.04063 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 442709 EEF1A1P28 eukaryotic translation elongation factor 1 1.02390 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer alpha 1 pseudogene28 100129381 LOC100129381 ribosomal protein S7 pseudogene 1.01754 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 392387 LOC392387 adenosylhomocysteinase pseudogene 1.00870 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 730338 LOC730338 hypothetical LOC730338 1.02145 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 5222 PGA5 pepsinogen 5, group I (pepsinogen A) 1.02036 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 390435 OR4T1P olfactory receptor, family 4, subfamily T, 1.02804 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer member 1 pseudogene 8626 TP63 tumor protein p63 1.01222 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 391160 ARPC3P2 actin related protein 2/3 complex, subunit 3 1.03806 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer pseudogene 2 157773 C8orf48 chromosome 8 open reading frame 48 1.02024 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 2847 MCHR1 melanin-concentrating hormone receptor 1 1.03315 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 3229 HOXC13 homeobox C13 1.01601 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100131087 RPLP1P11 ribosomal protein, large, P1 pseudogene 11 1.03187 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 647532 LOC647532 phenylalanine-tRNA synthetase-like, beta 1.02208 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer subunit pseudogene 3381 IBSP integrin-binding sialoprotein 1.02260 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 219981 OR5A2 olfactory receptor, family 5, subfamily A, member 2 1.05672 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 286555 TBL1YP1 transducin (beta)-like 1, Y-linked pseudogene 1 1.01866 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 9037 SEMA5A sema domain, seven thrombospondin repeats (type 1.01422 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 1 and type 1-like), transmembrane domain (TM) and short cytoplasmic domain, (semaphorin) 5A 6276 S100A5 S100 calcium binding protein A5 1.02479 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100128956 [No Symbol] [No Name] 1.01327 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 9145 SYNGR1 synaptogyrin 1 1.00260 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100129062 [No Symbol] [No Name] 1.01261 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 2444 FRK fyn-related kinase 1.01239 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100133286 LOC100133286 hypothetical LOC100133286 1.01395 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer

TABLE 3 Utah2 FC Summary Down Entrez Fold Gene ID Gene Symbol Gene Name Change Description 541468 C1orf190 chromosome 1 open reading frame 190 0.95272 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 221016 CCDC7 coiled-coil domain containing 7 0.91474 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 7012 TERC telomerase RNA component 0.89933 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 55270 NUDT15 nudix (nucleoside diphosphate linked moiety X)-type 0.94819 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer motif 15 728707 [No Symbol] [No Name] 0.95041 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 730255 RPL17P8 ribosomal protein L17 pseudogene 8 0.97608 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 4112 MAGEB1 melanoma antigen family B, 1 0.98272 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100129822 [No Symbol] [No Name] 0.96743 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 390282 LOC390282 eukaryotic translation initiation factor 0.92785 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 3, subunit F pseudogene 197370 NSMCE1 non-SMC element 1 homolog (S. cerevisiae) 0.95993 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 728509 RPS19P7 ribosomal protein S19 pseudogene 7 0.96104 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 442524 DPY19L2P3 dpy-19-like 2 pseudogene 3 (C. elegans) 0.96594 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 647034 RPS14P10 ribosomal protein S14 pseudogene 10 0.92096 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 339778 C2orf70 chromosome 2 open reading frame 70 0.98356 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 642677 LOC642677 family with sequence similarity 154, member B 0.94190 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer pseudogene 100128050 LOC100128050 WD repeat domain 77 pseudogene 0.96080 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 729451 LOC729451 hypothetical protein LOC729451 0.88014 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 51266 CLEC1B C-type lectin domain family 1, member B 0.85298 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100128646 RPL10AP7 ribosomal protein L10a pseudogene 7 0.97663 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 148645 C1orf211 chromosome 1 open reading frame 211 0.98681 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 440278 CATSPER2P1 cation channel, sperm associated 2 pseudogene 1 0.93409 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 653492 PSG10P pregnancy specific beta-1-glycoprotein 10, pseudogene 0.97264 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 391106 VDAC1P9 voltage-dependent anion channel 1 pseudogene 9 0.96278 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 441502 RPS26P11 ribosomal protein S26 pseudogene 11 0.89168 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 79022 TMEM106C transmembrane protein 106C 0.90028 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 326617 PSMA3P proteasome (prosome, macropain) subunit, 0.96648 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer alpha type, 3 pseudogene 344887 LOC344887 NmrA-like family domain containing 1 pseudogene 0.98782 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 645086 LOC645086 chromosome 11 open reading frame 58 pseudogene 0.95211 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 3872 KRT17 keratin 17 0.97206 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 1823 DSC1 desmocollin 1 0.89531 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 91392 ZNF502 zinc finger protein 502 0.95017 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 130813 C2orf50 chromosome 2 open reading frame 50 0.96590 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 219623 TMEM26 transmembrane protein 26 0.98584 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 87688 RPL7AP50 ribosomal protein L7a pseudogene 50 0.87836 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 7380 UPK3A uroplakin 3A 0.96288 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 84332 DYDC2 DPY30 domain containing 2 0.97996 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100132805 [No Symbol] [No Name] 0.98826 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 342666 FLJ43826 FLJ43826 protein 0.98080 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 348825 TPRXL tetra-peptide repeat homeobox-like 0.98578 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 388182 FLJ42289 hypothetical LOC388182 0.96063 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 9241 NOG noggin 0.82436 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 26 ABP1 amiloride binding protein 1 (amine 0.98467 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer oxidase (copper-containing)) 26256 CABYR calcium binding tyrosine-(Y)- 0.96896 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer phosphorylation regulated 100127889 C10orf131 chromosome 10 open reading frame 131 0.96310 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100128417 [No Symbol] [No Name] 0.96758 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 79625 C4orf31 chromosome 4 open reading frame 31 0.98147 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 83844 USP26 ubiquitin specific peptidase 26 0.96043 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 8228 PNPLA4 patatin-like phospholipase domain containing 4 0.94592 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 26590 OR8B7P olfactory receptor, family 8, subfamily 0.97829 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer B, member 7 pseudogene 100130859 [No Symbol] [No Name] 0.95802 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 400165 C13orf35 chromosome 13 open reading frame 35 0.96640 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 3809 KIR2DS4 killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptor, 0.90156 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer two domains, short cytoplasmic tail, 4 9288 TAAR3 trace amine associated receptor 3 (gene/pseudogene) 0.98837 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100129958 KRT8P44 keratin 8 pseudogene 44 0.97648 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100130321 LOC100130321 DNA fragmentation factor, 45 kDa, alpha 0.96556 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer polypeptide pseudogene 100132626 LOC100132626 protein FAM103A1-like 0.95852 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 7644 ZNF91 zinc finger protein 91 0.91174 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 144715 RAD9B RAD9 homolog B (S. pombe) 0.95746 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 728545 [No Symbol] [No Name] 0.92791 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 151825 KRT18P43 keratin 18 pseudogene 43 0.98744 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100128403 [No Symbol] [No Name] 0.98170 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 347051 SLC10A5 solute carrier family 10 (sodium/bile 0.96335 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer acid cotransporter family), member 5 28869 IGKV6D-41 immunoglobulin kappa variable 6D-41 (non- 0.98400 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer functional) 387856 C12orf68 chromosome 12 open reading frame 68 0.96793 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 644588 DNAJA1P3 DnaJ (Hsp40) homolog, subfamily A, member 1 0.95825 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer pseudogene 3 100130184 [No Symbol] [No Name] 0.97631 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 286495 TTC3P1 tetratricopeptide repeat domain 3 pseudogene 1 0.95788 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 387924 OGFOD1P1 2-oxoglutarate and iron-dependent oxygenase 0.97365 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer domain containing 1 pseudogene 1 55702 CCDC94 coiled-coil domain containing 94 0.93784 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 5054 SERPINE1 serpin peptidase inhibitor, clade E (nexin, 0.95359 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer plasminogen activator inhibitor type 1), member 1 641518 LOC641518 hypothetical LOC641518 0.93179 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 388507 ZNF788 zinc finger family member 788 0.96818 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 7164 TPD52L1 tumor protein D52-like 1 0.99643 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 57570 TRMT5 TRM5 tRNA methyltransferase 5 homolog 0.92717 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer (S. cerevisiae) 100131602 [No Symbol] [No Name] 0.98327 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 3812 KIR3DL2 killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptor, 0.97100 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer three domains, long cytoplasmic tail, 2 3625 INHBB inhibin, beta B 0.95366 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 56891 LGALS14 lectin, galactoside-binding, soluble, 14 0.97194 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 2841 GPR18 G protein-coupled receptor 18 0.90221 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 645233 LOC645233 thymine-DNA glycosylase pseudogene 0.89278 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 166752 FREM3 FRAS1 related extracellular matrix 3 0.99312 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 54035 PSMD4P1 proteasome (prosome, macropain) 26S 0.94461 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer subunit, non-ATPase, 4 pseudogene 1 646272 LOC646272 cytochrome b-c1 complex subunit 8-like 0.94686 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100133337 [No Symbol] [No Name] 0.97327 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100130623 [No Symbol] [No Name] 0.99692 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100132310 LOC100132310 FCF1 small subunit (SSU) processome 0.96241 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer component homolog ((S. cerevisiae) pseudogene 5988 RFPL1 ret finger protein-like 1 0.97369 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 148823 C1orf150 chromosome 1 open reading frame 150 0.93649 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 23754 RPL32P5 ribosomal protein L32 pseudogene 5 0.91445 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 401703 LOC401703 splicing factor U2AF 35 kDa subunit-like 0.96591 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 1266 CNN3 calponin 3, acidic 0.97602 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 81889 FAHD1 fumarylacetoacetate hydrolase domain containing 1 0.93160 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 339736 AK2P2 adenylate kinase 2 pseudogene 2 0.95816 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 64410 KLHL25 kelch-like 25 (Drosophila) 0.97533 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 28466 IGHV1-45 immunoglobulin heavy variable 1-45 0.97065 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 259286 TAS2R40 taste receptor, type 2, member 40 0.96512 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 9363 RAB33A RAB33A, member RAS oncogene family 0.97583 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 729950 LOC729950 hypothetical LOC729950 0.97018 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 653712 LOC653712 intraflagellar transport 122 homolog 0.97822 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer (Chlamydomonas) pseudogene 81050 OR5AC2 olfactory receptor, family 5, subfamily 0.97482 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer AC, member 2 126259 TMIGD2 transmembrane and immunoglobulin domain 0.92855 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer containing 2 51499 TRIAP1 TP53 regulated inhibitor of apoptosis 1 0.91981 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100129837 [No Symbol] [No Name] 0.99866 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 441722 LOC441722 U2 small nuclear RNA auxiliary factor 1 pseudogene 0.93089 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100129046 LOC100129046 hypothetical LOC100129046 0.97470 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 85352 KIAA1644 KIAA1644 0.97770 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 731039 [No Symbol] [No Name] 0.97693 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 401588 LOC401588 hypothetical LOC401588 0.94851 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 390155 OR5T1 olfactory receptor, family 5, subfamily T, member 1 0.97737 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 81309 OR4C15 olfactory receptor, family 4, subfamily C, member 15 0.96608 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 171472 SRSF10P2 serine/arginine-rich splicing factor 10 pseudogene 2 0.97861 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 729687 HMGN2P25 high mobility group nucleosomal binding 0.95508 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer domain 2 pseudogene 25 646895 [No Symbol] [No Name] 0.91585 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 51616 TAF9B TAF9B RNA polymerase II, TATA box binding 0.90443 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer protein (TBP)- associated factor, 31 kDa 113246 C12orf57 chromosome 12 open reading frame 57 0.86256 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100131568 LOC100131568 RNA binding motif protein 43 pseudogene 0.96482 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 730109 LOC730109 hypothetical protein LOC730109 0.98596 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 55604 LRRC16A leucine rich repeat containing 16A 0.97138 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 119391 GSTO2 glutathione S-transferase omega 2 0.97955 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 54033 RBM11 RNA binding motif protein 11 0.94485 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 1068 CETN1 centrin, EF-hand protein, 1 0.95410 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 9397 NMT2 N-myristoyltransferase 2 0.92727 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 729868 [No Symbol] [No Name] 0.97418 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 153893 LOC153893 DCN1, defective in cullin neddylation 1, domain 0.97614 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer containing 1 (S. cerevisiae) pseudogene 80032 ZNF556 zinc finger protein 556 0.97780 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 400360 C15orf54 chromosome 15 open reading frame 54 0.84923 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 7643 ZNF90 zinc finger protein 90 0.97669 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 64838 FNDC4 fibronectin type III domain containing 4 0.99459 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 285484 LOC285484 hypothetical LOC285484 0.97920 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 90499 LOC90499 hypothetical protein LOC90499 0.94649 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 2945 GSTM5P1 glutathione S-transferase mu 5 pseudogene 1 0.97316 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 1424 CRYGGP crystallin, gamma G, pseudogene 0.96815 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 3346 HTN1 histatin 1 0.98200 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 10127 ZNF263 zinc finger protein 263 0.93963 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 131572 MESTP4 mesoderm specific transcript homolog 0.97671 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer (mouse) pseudogene 4 25927 CNRIP1 cannabinoid receptor interacting protein 1 0.98837 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 4925 NUCB2 nucleobindin 2 0.91190 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 236 AKR1B1P2 aldo-keto reductase family 1, member 0.96975 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer B1 pseudogene 2 147657 ZNF480 zinc finger protein 480 0.91736 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100128122 LOC100128122 Cas-Br-M (murine) ecotropic retroviral 0.97337 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer transforming sequence-like 1 pseudogene 123862 LOC123862 interferon induced transmembrane protein 0.95430 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer pseudogene 6555 SLC10A2 solute carrier family 10 (sodium/bile 0.98761 Down in those who develop hereditary breast cancer acid cotransporter family), member 2

TABLE 4 Utah2 FC Summary Up Entrez Fold Gene ID Gene Symbol Gene Name Change Description 55057 AIM1L absent in melanoma 1-like 1.01575 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 148641 SLC35F3 solute carrier family 35, member F3 1.01311 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 647298 HSPD1P8 heat shock 60 kDa protein 1 (chaperonin) pseudogene 8 1.01504 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 392282 RPS5P6 ribosomal protein S5 pseudogene 6 1.02827 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 389428 RPL5P18 ribosomal protein L5 pseudogene 18 1.05885 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100130249 PP2672 hypothetical LOC100130249 1.04144 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 163778 SPRR4 small proline-rich protein 4 1.05947 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 157927 C9orf62 chromosome 9 open reading frame 62 1.02656 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 83604 TMEM47 transmembrane protein 47 1.02085 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 729486 IL9RP3 interleukin 9 receptor pseudogene 3 1.04554 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 286122 C8orf31 chromosome 8 open reading frame 31 1.02932 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 400954 EML6 echinoderm microtubule associated protein like 6 1.02327 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100128700 [No Symbol] [No Name] 1.03000 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 730126 [No Symbol] [No Name] 1.03615 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 644662 LOC644662 hypothetical protein LOC644662 1.01804 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 785 CACNB4 calcium channel, voltage-dependent, beta 4 subunit 1.01724 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 149157 [No Symbol] [No Name] 1.02750 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 347333 KRT8P14 keratin 8 pseudogene 14 1.00982 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100128386 LOC100128386 hypothetical LOC100128386 1.02361 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100132086 LOC100132086 adenylate kinase isoenzyme 6-like 1.02578 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 121270 OR11M1P olfactory receptor, family 11, subfamily 1.06053 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer M, member 1 pseudogene 408029 C2orf27B chromosome 2 open reading frame 27B 1.02973 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 6461 SHB Src homology 2 domain containing adaptor protein B 1.01215 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 27145 FILIP1 filamin A interacting protein 1 1.02313 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 401433 LOC401433 hypothetical LOC401433 1.03820 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100131042 [No Symbol] [No Name] 1.04994 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 646576 LOC646576 hypothetical LOC646576 1.00778 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 10877 CFHR4 complement factor H-related 4 1.03294 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 3394 IRF8 interferon regulatory factor 8 1.03235 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100128493 LOC100128493 ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme E2 variant 2 pseudogene 1.03824 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 440603 BCL2L15 BCL2-like 15 1.02400 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 728050 [No Symbol] [No Name] 1.08112 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 649288 AK4P6 adenylate kinase 4 pseudogene 6 1.03149 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100128979 LOC100128979 hypothetical LOC100128979 1.03901 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100128457 LOC100128457 similar to hCG2026341 1.04522 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 283553 LOC283553 hypothetical LOC283553 1.01435 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 199713 NLRP7 NLR family, pyrin domain containing 7 1.03336 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 2596 GAP43 growth associated protein 43 1.01796 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 441505 LOC441505 stress-induced-phosphoprotein 1 pseudogene 1.00827 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 643586 LOC643586 pyruvate kinase, muscle pseudogene 1.03424 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 449518 LOC449518 purinergic receptor P2Y, G-protein coupled, 1.04589 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 10 pseudogene 3426 CFI complement factor I 1.01805 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 128774 MRPS11P1 mitochondrial ribosomal protein S11 pseudogene 1 1.03087 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100129915 [No Symbol] [No Name] 1.01662 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 6862 T T, brachyury homolog (mouse) 1.01862 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 1472 CST4 cystatin S 1.05145 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 4342 MOS v-mos Moloney murine sarcoma viral oncogene homolog 1.01892 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 78998 C8orf51 chromosome 8 open reading frame 51 1.03279 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 780813 PAICSP4 phosphoribosylaminoimidazole carboxylase, 1.01634 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer phosphoribosylaminoimidazole succinocarboxamide synthetase pseudogene 4 55540 IL17RB interleukin 17 receptor B 1.01748 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100128709 [No Symbol] [No Name] 1.05850 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100130268 LOC100130268 similar to hCG1648866 1.03898 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100128389 [No Symbol] [No Name] 1.04353 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 353194 LOC353194 keratin pseudogene 1.03225 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100131609 HNRNPA1P2 heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein 1.05136 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer A1 pseudogene 2 130500 CISD1P1 CDGSH iron sulfur domain 1 pseudogene 1 1.03521 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 128820 CST9LP1 cystatin 9-like pseudogene 1 1.03984 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100132214 [No Symbol] [No Name] 1.04735 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 26647 OR7E25P olfactory receptor, family 7, subfamily 1.03869 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer E, member 25 pseudogene 729041 LOC729041 fatty-acid amide hydrolase 1-like 1.04385 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 221711 SYCP2L synaptonemal complex protein 2-like 1.03038 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 4157 MC1R melanocortin 1 receptor (alpha melanocyte 1.03616 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer stimulating hormone receptor) 10461 MERTK c-mer proto-oncogene tyrosine kinase 1.03881 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 729011 [No Symbol] [No Name] 1.03000 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 649489 LOC649489 protein phosphatase 1, regulatory 1.02506 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer (inhibitor) subunit 2 pseudogene 4744 NEFH neurofilament, heavy polypeptide 1.01566 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 7070 THY1 Thy-1 cell surface antigen 1.01532 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 653194 LOC653194 KH homology domain-containing protein 1-like 1.03238 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 7473 WNT3 wingless-type MMTV integration site family, member 3 1.01553 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 283314 MATL2963 hypothetical LOC283314 1.03595 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 647532 LOC647532 phenylalanine-tRNA synthetase-like, beta 1.02208 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer subunit pseudogene 644862 RPS28P3 ribosomal protein S28 pseudogene 3 1.03776 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 3626 INHBC inhibin, beta C 1.02582 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 283571 PROX2 prospero homeobox 2 1.01521 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100132510 GLRXP3 glutaredoxin (thioltransferase) pseudogene 3 1.03741 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 25925 ZNF521 zinc finger protein 521 1.01135 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 606495 CYB5RL cytochrome b5 reductase-like 1.00749 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 56834 GPR137 G protein-coupled receptor 137 1.00139 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 574447 MIR146B microRNA 146b 1.03471 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 8626 TP63 tumor protein p63 1.01222 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 390844 ARIH2P1 ariadne homolog 2 pseudogene 1 1.01615 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 4085 MAD2L1 MAD2 mitotic arrest deficient-like 1 (yeast) 1.01352 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100131070 LOC100131070 mpv17-like protein 2-like 1.03546 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 338094 FAM151A family with sequence similarity 151, member A 1.02257 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 339983 NAT8L N-acetyltransferase 8-like (GCN5-related, putative) 1.02554 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100132053 RPL30P8 ribosomal protein L30 pseudogene 8 1.01456 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100131750 [No Symbol] [No Name] 1.02281 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 285231 FBXW12 F-box and WD repeat domain containing 12 1.02713 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 400347 LOC400347 REX4, RNA exonuclease 4 homolog 1.03336 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer (S. cerevisiae) pseudogene 6887 TAL2 T-cell acute lymphocytic leukemia 2 1.03352 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 201895 C4orf34 chromosome 4 open reading frame 34 1.02999 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 442673 TUBG1P tubulin, gamma 1 pseudogene 1.04787 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 392301 SLC25A5P8 solute carrier family 25 (mitochondrial carrier; 1.02652 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer adenine nucleotide translocator), member 5 pseudogene 8 414318 C9orf106 chromosome 9 open reading frame 106 1.03024 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 23439 ATP1B4 ATPase, Na+/K+ transporting, beta 4 polypeptide 1.01288 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 219902 TMEM136 transmembrane protein 136 1.01357 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 79825 CCDC48 coiled-coil domain containing 48 1.01918 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 643669 LOC643669 hypothetical protein LOC643669 1.01596 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 145259 RPSAP4 ribosomal protein SA pseudogene 4 1.01434 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 2335 FN1 fibronectin 1 1.02499 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 81849 ST6GALNAC5 ST6 (alpha-N-acetyl-neuraminyl-2,3-beta-galactosyl- 1.01527 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 1,3)-N-acetylgalactosaminide alpha-2,6- sialyltransferase 5 100132073 LOC100132073 cyclin B2 pseudogene 1.03497 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 84099 ID2B inhibitor of DNA binding 2B, dominant negative helix- 1.02669 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer loop-helix protein (pseudogene) 644464 RPSAP61 ribosomal protein SA pseudogene 61 1.04385 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 130162 C2orf63 chromosome 2 open reading frame 63 1.01620 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 10316 NMUR1 neuromedin U receptor 1 1.05132 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 728780 ANKDD1B ankyrin repeat and death domain 1.01894 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer containing 1B 643182 LOC643182 upstream binding transcription factor, 1.01711 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer RNA polymerase I pseudogene 344807 CD200R1L CD200 receptor 1-like 1.01802 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 140691 TRIM69 tripartite motif containing 69 1.02117 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 644915 METTL15P2 methyltransferase like 15 pseudogene 2 1.01990 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 139411 PTCHD1 patched domain containing 1 1.01407 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 118663 BTBD16 BTB (POZ) domain containing 16 1.01455 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 285987 DLX6-AS1 DLX6 antisense RNA 1 (non-protein coding) 1.02260 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 130013 ACMSD aminocarboxymuconate semialdehyde decarboxylase 1.02182 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 645474 S100A11P3 S100 calcium binding protein A11 pseudogene 3 1.03471 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 3226 HOXC10 homeobox C10 1.01038 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 392387 LOC392387 adenosylhomocysteinase pseudogene 1.00870 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 81431 OR5AC1 olfactory receptor, family 5, subfamily 1.00021 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer AC, member 1 (gene/pseudogene) 79696 FAM164C family with sequence similarity 164, member C 1.01792 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100131087 RPLP1P11 ribosomal protein, large, P1 pseudogen 11 1.03187 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 644941 [No Symbol] [No Name] 1.06134 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100127983 LOC100127983 hypothetical protein LOC100127983 1.00087 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100129316 LOC100129316 hypothetical LOC100129316 1.02946 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 806 CALM2P2 calmodulin 2 pseudogene 2 1.03895 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 644489 [No Symbol] [No Name] 1.03232 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100129568 [No Symbol] [No Name] 1.01209 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 6276 S100A5 S100 calcium binding protein A5 1.02479 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100129427 LOC100129427 hypothetical LOC100129427 1.04063 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 163183 C19orf46 chromosome 19 open reading frame 46 1.02242 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 51676 ASB2 ankyrin repeat and SOCS box containing 2 1.01372 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 157773 C8orf48 chromosome 8 open reading frame 48 1.02024 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 2151 F2RL2 coagulation factor II (thrombin) receptor-like 2 1.02926 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 5999 RGS4 regulator of G-protein signaling 4 1.02586 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 993 CDC25A cell division cycle 25 homolog A (S. pombe) 1.01648 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 442192 DDX6P1 DEAD (Asp-Glu-Ala-Asp) box polypeptide 6 1.00649 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer pseudogene 1 255403 ZNF718 zinc finger protein 718 1.03097 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 338557 O3FAR1 omega-3 fatty acid receptor 1 1.00668 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 9037 SEMA5A sema domain, seven thrombospondin repeats (type 1 and 1.01422 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer type 1-like), transmembrane domain (TM) and short cytoplasmic domain, (semaphorin) 5A 442709 EEF1A1P28 eukaryotic translation elongation factor 1 alpha 1 1.02390 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer pseudogene 28 80097 MZT2B mitotic spindle organizing protein 2B 1.03085 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 57016 AKR1B10 aldo-keto reductase family 1, member B10 1.03090 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer (aldose reductase) 50835 TAS2R9 taste receptor, type 2, member 9 1.02523 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 442213 C6orf138 chromosome 6 open reading frame 138 1.01107 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100131991 RPL29P8 ribosomal protein L29 pseudogene 8 1.02907 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 1553 CYP2A13 cytochrome P450, family 2, subfamily A, polypeptide 13 1.02619 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 646808 LOC646808 L antigen family member 3-like 1.00468 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100128956 [No Symbol] [No Name] 1.01327 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 286544 MXRA5P1 matrix-remodelling associated 5 pseudogene 1 1.01832 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 392288 LOC392288 micro tubule-associated proteins 1A/1B 1.02050 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer light chain 3B-like 646784 RPL5P6 ribosomal protein L5 pseudogene 6 1.02334 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 653794 TRIM60P14 tripartite motif containing 60 pseudogene 14 1.01707 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 728962 RPL7P56 ribosomal protein L7 pseudogene 56 1.01247 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 1769 DNAH8 dynein, axonemal, heavy chain 8 1.01179 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 25789 TMEM59L transmembrane protein 59-like 1.00625 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 221833 SP8 Sp8 transcription factor 1.01794 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100131819 [No Symbol] [No Name] 1.02809 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer 100133303 [No Symbol] [No Name] 1.00567 Up in those who develop hereditary breast cancer

TABLE 5 PI3K Genes Patent Utah Relative Ontario1 Relative Ontario2 Relative Entrez Expression In BC Expression In BC Expression In BC Gene ID Gene Symbol Gene Name Individuals Individuals Individuals 801 CALM1 calmodulin 1 (phosphorylase kinase, delta) −0.005868907 −0.034288056 −0.073209514 805 CALM2 calmodulin 2 (phosphorylase kinase, delta) 0.029884779 −0.103366242 −0.018766879 808 CALM3 calmodulin 3 (phosphorylase kinase, delta) −0.041808313 −0.056287265 0.014481458 810 CALML3 calmodulin-like 3 −0.009634626 0.004471252 −0.024717361 51806 CALML5 calmodulin-like 5 −0.02286605 0.021140162 0.03916656 163688 CALML6 calmodulin-like 6 −0.008166721 −0.015273123 −0.005577405 10423 CDIPT CDP-diacylglycerol--inositol 3-phosphatidyltransferase −0.051092172 −0.072262869 0.042163104 1040 CDS1 CDP-diacylglycerol synthase (phosphatidate −0.003726478 −0.010667818 −0.011381363 cytidylyltransferase) 1 8760 CDS2 CDP-diacylglycerol synthase (phosphatidate −0.036125825 0.012370354 −0.059466994 cytidylyltransferase) 2 1606 DGKA diacylglycerol kinase, alpha 80 kDa −0.05841798 −0.011296983 −0.099703428 1607 DGKB diacylglycerol kinase, beta 90 kDa 0.005001732 −0.000621839 0.006532214 8527 DGKD diacylglycerol kinase, delta 130 kDa −0.001969979 0.071182927 −0.028379999 8526 DGKE diacylglycerol kinase, epsilon 64 kDa −0.058271652 −0.046321391 −0.026491162 1608 DGKG diacylglycerol kinase, gamma 90 kDa −0.006297576 −0.015694053 0.00316159 160851 DGKH diacylglycerol kinase, eta −0.030362684 −0.021075694 0.071652238 9162 DGKI diacylglycerol kinase, iota 0.011890312 0.003042886 0.029705028 1609 DGKQ diacylglycerol kinase, theta 110 kDa −0.014207833 −0.021745181 0.003026248 8525 DGKZ diacylglycerol kinase, zeta −0.009531233 0.011038832 −0.035008789 3612 IMPA1 inositol(myo)-1(or 4)-monophosphatase 1 −0.0465624 −0.032847849 0.076108587 3613 IMPA2 inositol(myo)-1(or 4)-monophosphatase 2 −0.018530574 −0.008767401 −0.000808967 3628 INPP1 inositol polyphosphate-1-phosphatase −0.002667501 −0.015891572 0.021452741 3631 INPP4A inositol polyphosphate-4-phosphatase, type I, 107 kDa 0.008964483 −0.014970733 −0.016228805 8821 INPP4B inositol polyphosphate-4-phosphatase, type II, 105 kDa −0.02765817 −0.065399565 −0.047857731 3632 INPP5A inositol polyphosphate-5-phosphatase, 40 kDa −0.016320182 0.017577047 −0.038410834 3633 INPP5B inositol polyphosphate-5-phosphatase, 75 kDa −0.010176361 0.002324463 0.096761886 3635 INPP5D inositol polyphosphate-5-phosphatase, 145 kDa 0.01611884 −0.000221938 −0.014274004 56623 INPP5E inositol polyphosphate-5-phosphatase, 72 kDa −0.024859523 −0.013070128 0.063305418 27124 INPP5J inositol polyphosphate-5-phosphatase J −0.012710432 −0.008897664 −0.005971657 51763 INPP5K inositol polyphosphate-5-phosphatase K −0.036774928 −0.039704729 −0.077983112 3636 INPPL1 inositol polyphosphate phosphatase-like 1 −0.031696342 0.078589508 −0.005371941 64768 IPPK inositol 1,3,4,5,6-pentakisphosphate 2-kinase −0.027186023 0.010787434 0.039800144 3705 ITPK1 inositol-tetrakisphosphate 1-kinase −0.00310463 −0.018788231 0.002272978 3706 ITPKA inositol-trisphosphate 3-kinase A −0.013390543 0.003602212 0.05420415 3707 ITPKB inositol-trisphosphate 3-kinase B −0.022382451 0.024313804 −0.103537846 3708 ITPR1 inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor, type 1 −0.00738637 −0.023494011 0.012953349 3709 ITPR2 inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor, type 2 −0.023597782 −0.027884427 0.023891588 3710 ITPR3 inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor, type 3 −0.010921738 0.010189935 0.02014193 4952 OCRL oculocerebrorenal syndrome of Lowe −0.021285205 −0.03436778 0.031803097 55361 PI4K2A phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase type 2 alpha −0.054616219 −0.044763903 −0.080477411 55300 PI4K2B phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase type 2 beta −0.009969065 0.028044147 0.079730218 5297 PI4KA phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase, catalytic, alpha −0.019377488 −0.010899036 −0.040647267 5298 PI4KB phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase, catalytic, beta 0.004723306 −0.021284618 0.037429493 5286 PIK3C2A phosphoinositide-3-kinase, class 2, alpha polypeptide −0.046132703 0.027112212 −0.007622418 5287 PIK3C2B phosphoinositide-3-kinase, class 2, beta polypeptide −0.027065318 0.045285642 0.050845173 5288 PIK3C2G phosphoinositide-3-kinase, class 2, gamma polypeptide 0.002314968 0.010986899 −0.004823366 5289 PIK3C3 phosphoinositide-3-kinase, class 3 −0.034725126 −0.012781531 0.041160711 5290 PIK3CA phosphoinositide-3-kinase, catalytic, alpha polypeptide −0.018855838 −0.032719808 −0.038543872 5291 PIK3CB phosphoinositide-3-kinase, catalytic, beta polypeptide −0.017621415 −0.003059229 −0.089249522 5293 PIK3CD phosphoinositide-3-kinase, catalytic, delta polypeptide −0.021024029 −0.034590864 −4.50E−05 5294 PIK3CG phosphoinositide-3-kinase, catalytic, gamma polypeptide 0.022809021 −0.02426685 −0.050973145 5295 PIK3R1 phosphoinositide-3-kinase, regulatory subunit 1 (alpha) 0.015282806 −0.022171077 −0.10639986 5296 PIK3R2 phosphoinositide-3-kinase, regulatory subunit 2 (beta) −0.042329239 −0.057456372 0.025274178 8503 PIK3R3 phosphoinositide-3-kinase, regulatory subunit 3 (gamma) 0.01033469 0.023964076 0.099971866 23533 PIK3R5 phosphoinositide-3-kinase, regulatory subunit 5 −0.030385677 0.101135589 −0.074130345 200576 PIKFYVE phosphoinositide kinase, FYVE finger containing −0.003144749 0.000187523 −0.053325366 5305 PIP4K2A phosphatidylinositol-5-phosphate 4-kinase, type II, alpha −0.008173273 0.078190797 0.026167758 8396 PIP4K2B phosphatidylinositol-5-phosphate 4-kinase, type II, beta −0.042621947 −0.037870838 0.070678669 79837 PIP4K2C phosphatidylinositol-5-phosphate 4-kinase, type II, gamma −0.041639739 −0.049045079 0.040141175 8394 PIP5K1A phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate 5-kinase, type I, alpha 0.009675317 0.029828603 −0.026438165 8395 PIP5K1B phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate 5-kinase, type I, beta −0.008933258 −0.014580712 0.054372873 23396 PIP5K1C phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate 5-kinase, type I, gamma −0.036626462 0.040091056 −0.000379232 23236 PLCB1 phospholipase C, beta 1 (phosphoinositide-specific) −0.022026224 −0.019811055 −0.02677464 5330 PLCB2 phospholipase C, beta 2 0.009487544 −0.040789436 −0.033308453 5331 PLCB3 phospholipase C, beta 3 (phosphatidylinositol-specific) −0.030709073 0.057247717 −0.034208085 5332 PLCB4 phospholipase C, beta 4 −0.005747913 0.002829279 −0.001976635 5333 PLCD1 phospholipase C, delta 1 −0.018069548 −0.026657873 −0.045274097 113026 PLCD3 phospholipase C, delta 3 −0.014037564 0.016192575 0.030545611 84812 PLCD4 phospholipase C, delta 4 0.005752336 0.002104489 −0.001642951 51196 PLCE1 phospholipase C, epsilon 1 0.004952386 −0.00168187 0.004303058 5335 PLCG1 phospholipase C, gamma 1 −0.06331 0.007470207 0.02426554 5336 PLCG2 phospholipase C, gamma 2 (phosphatidylinositol-specific) −0.004092373 0.058748801 −0.011447829 89869 PLCZ1 phospholipase C, zeta 1 0.008462462 0.017562649 0.004098731 5578 PRKCA protein kinase C, alpha −0.040169309 −0.067892309 −0.077256745 5579 PRKCB protein kinase C, beta −0.023480781 −0.020362346 −0.023903074 5582 PRKCG protein kinase C, gamma −0.014498324 0.006776302 0.00013148 5728 PTEN phosphatase and tensin homolog −0.010654453 0.02782015 0.128758281 8867 SYNJ1 synaptojanin 1 −0.021592507 0.001719874 −0.06096483 8871 SYNJ2 synaptojanin 2 −0.02094889 −0.005098898 −0.037346223

TABLE 6 CellAdhesion Genes Utah Relative Ontario1 Relative Ontario2 Relative Entrez Expression In Expression In Expression In Gene ID Gene Symbol Gene Name BC Individuals BC Individuals BC Individuals 214 ALCAM activated leukocyte cell adhesion molecule −0.006460525 −0.014497025 0.054872502 23705 CADM1 cell adhesion molecule 1 0.00110034 0.01758329 0.043183389 57863 CADM3 cell adhesion molecule 3 −0.003951303 −0.015251455 0.007634349 914 CD2 CD2 molecule −0.020702602 −0.006600216 −0.113551569 10666 CD226 CD226 molecule −0.048948745 −0.037742755 0.076472212 29126 CD274 CD274 molecule −0.016777871 0.015365715 0.150193174 80381 CD276 CD276 molecule 0.004194852 −0.003650389 0.035103109 940 CD28 CD28 molecule −0.056017848 −0.09032102 −0.11342893 947 CD34 CD34 molecule 0.013031581 0.018582251 −0.019624364 920 CD4 CD4 molecule −0.053083942 −0.110953872 −0.041497737 958 CD40 CD40 molecule, TNF receptor superfamily member 5 −0.030202508 0.062231726 0.116708266 959 CD40LG CD40 ligand −0.103900142 −0.071402632 −0.11086035 965 CD58 CD58 molecule 0.033029873 0.024811232 0.014796625 923 CD6 CD6 molecule −0.045083264 0.090163225 −0.109411313 941 CD80 CD80 molecule 0.028558412 −0.010086333 0.083681009 942 CD86 CD86 molecule 0.027877251 −0.009043919 −0.107504395 925 CD8A CD8a molecule −0.004102427 0.158921804 −0.105556622 999 CDH1 cadherin 1, type 1, E-cadherin (epithelial) −0.00412346 0.008293442 0.039342304 1013 CDH15 cadherin 15, type 1, M-cadherin (myotubule) −0.015350661 −0.023015097 0.053550596 1000 CDH2 cadherin 2, type 1, N-cadherin (neuronal) −0.008270834 −0.011348025 0.021183801 1001 CDH3 cadherin 3, type 1, P-cadherin (placental) −0.010967392 0.01393509 0.014139428 1002 CDH4 cadherin 4, type 1, R-cadherin (retinal) −0.002617803 −0.000718771 −0.003782769 1003 CDH5 cadherin 5, type 2 (vascular endothelium) −0.005730892 −0.021068125 −0.004565345 9076 CLDN1 claudin 1 −0.008152484 −0.014740001 0.001550538 9071 CLDN10 claudin 10 −0.005209284 0.01775261 0.005534196 5010 CLDN11 claudin 11 0.01002259 0.017410745 0.042640934 23562 CLDN14 claudin 14 −0.012847641 0.004394641 0.010270242 24146 CLDN15 claudin 15 −0.002572652 0.0077611 0.026167644 10686 CLDN16 claudin 16 0.021687776 0.028260496 0.019109033 26285 CLDN17 claudin 17 0.005585359 −0.004759663 0.01021718 51208 CLDN18 claudin 18 0.002805619 0.018271871 0.007608307 149461 CLDN19 claudin 19 5.76E−05 −0.017338313 −0.002152721 9075 CLDN2 claudin 2 0.011709797 −0.007597714 −0.021416917 49861 CLDN20 claudin 20 0.02199445 0.027094781 0.019291772 53842 CLDN22 claudin 22 −0.011427867 −0.01690586 −0.015652574 137075 CLDN23 claudin 23 0.004348942 −0.012342353 0.066157287 1365 CLDN3 claudin 3 −0.012307635 0.000278002 0.038585761 1364 CLDN4 claudin 4 0.001011178 0.003598941 0.02725779 7122 CLDN5 claudin 5 −0.034540541 −0.05012505 0.014706884 1366 CLDN7 claudin 7 −0.015118723 0.024201759 0.048516311 9073 CLDN8 claudin 8 0.003863959 0.005768418 0.003077065 9080 CLDN9 claudin 9 −0.012389372 0.000604549 0.018418111 1272 CNTN1 contactin 1 −0.002774516 0.012327461 0.009027854 6900 CNTN2 contactin 2 (axonal) −0.003770164 0.006561527 0.01843188 8506 CNTNAP1 contactin associated protein 1 −0.007463407 −0.019416368 0.065878724 26047 CNTNAP2 contactin associated protein-like 2 0.004317992 −0.004430622 0.011857705 1493 CTLA4 cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4 −0.022526478 −0.109248593 −0.102287725 90952 ESAM endothelial cell adhesion molecule −0.047859768 −0.02710148 0.08501458 50848 F11R F11 receptor −0.020594915 0.033692933 0.023153873 2734 GLG1 golgi glycoprotein 1 −0.041673544 −0.014132418 0.027839869 3108 HLA-DMA major histocompatibility complex, class II, DM alpha 0.011823208 −0.056858359 0.016285572 3109 HLA-DMB major histocompatibility complex, class II, DM beta 0.020497546 −0.03308747 −0.010727873 3111 HLA-DOA major histocompatibility complex, class II, DO alpha −0.033724355 −0.044856436 0.090380732 3113 HLA-DPA1 major histocompatibility complex, class II, DP alpha 1 0.041060178 −0.102217341 0.057369701 3115 HLA-DPB1 major histocompatibility complex, class II, DP beta 1 0.048373217 −0.023639141 −0.072835793 3118 HLA-DQA2 major histocompatibility complex, class II, DQ alpha 2 0.024382014 −0.049076103 0.015871978 3122 HLA-DRA major histocompatibility complex, class II, DR alpha 0.007385599 −0.077860694 0.058450635 3127 HLA-DRB5 major histocompatibility complex, class II, DR beta 5 −0.028768599 −0.000340101 −0.050489613 3133 HLA-E major histocompatibility complex, class I, E 0.008650351 −0.062784603 −0.062680424 3134 HLA-F major histocompatibility complex, class I, F 0.022832302 −0.004862356 −0.086779223 3135 HLA-G major histocompatibility complex, class I, G −0.007583133 −0.096215853 0.023067679 3383 ICAM1 intercellular adhesion molecule 1 −0.027306131 0.075547628 −0.051299584 3384 ICAM2 intercellular adhesion molecule 2 −0.071881163 −0.046050405 0.037323074 3385 ICAM3 intercellular adhesion molecule 3 −0.035060751 −0.068339868 0.073119338 29851 ICOS inducible T-cell co-stimulator −0.063808515 −0.055749769 −0.080683129 23308 ICOSLG inducible T-cell co-stimulator ligand −0.017408697 0.052532634 −0.059764022 3676 ITGA4 integrin, alpha 4 (antigen CD49D, alpha 4 subunit of VLA-4 0.028385939 0.026396434 0.049283953 receptor) 3655 ITGA6 integrin, alpha 6 −0.061910554 −0.075116422 −0.111035036 8516 ITGA8 integrin, alpha 8 0.004872254 0.00111313 0.004645907 3680 ITGA9 integrin, alpha 9 0.014515176 −0.009883794 −0.011571422 3683 ITGAL integrin, alpha L (antigen CD11A (p180), lymphocyte function- 0.012078283 −0.003282078 −0.011277773 associated antigen 1; alpha polypeptide) 3684 ITGAM integrin, alpha M (complement component 3 receptor 3 subunit) −0.030875214 −0.022709103 −0.038947313 3685 ITGAV integrin, alpha V (vitronectin receptor, alpha polypeptide, −0.003828593 0.030595683 0.021800215 antigen CD51) 3688 ITGB1 integrin, beta 1 (fibronectin receptor, beta polypeptide, antigen 0.002101818 0.000100204 −0.065552763 CD29 includes MDF2, MSK12) 3689 ITGB2 integrin, beta 2 (complement component 3 receptor 3 and 4 0.003127965 −0.046762142 −0.016742796 subunit) 3695 ITGB7 integrin, beta 7 −0.039717254 −0.03768125 0.102189415 3696 ITGB8 integrin, beta 8 0.009464352 0.035750953 0.086576166 58494 JAM2 junctional adhesion molecule 2 −0.009222826 0.00153459 0.029580866 83700 JAM3 junctional adhesion molecule 3 −0.056205136 −0.001533202 −0.084711187 3897 L1CAM L1 cell adhesion molecule −0.005667548 0.014851353 0.008886221 8174 MADCAM1 mucosal vascular addressin cell adhesion molecule 1 0.010692962 −0.015635147 0.054686378 4099 MAG myelin associated glycoprotein −0.020323958 0.020089562 0.035543235 4359 MPZ myelin protein zero 0.000694181 −0.007089335 −0.017141443 9019 MPZL1 myelin protein zero-like 1 −0.011844804 −0.01758879 0.055876168 4684 NCAM1 neural cell adhesion molecule 1 −0.004317548 −0.0076833 −0.008260968 4685 NCAM2 neural cell adhesion molecule 2 −0.004400026 0.007039572 0.007005574 257194 NEGR1 neuronal growth regulator 1 −0.001057963 −0.002421025 0.013205528 4756 NEO1 neogenin 1 −0.031696845 −0.020750089 −0.03615622 23114 NFASC neurofascin −0.000308788 −0.006770357 0.005253867 22871 NLGN1 neuroligin 1 0.008369802 0.006189118 0.020046505 57555 NLGN2 neuroligin 2 −0.000753316 0.021053176 −0.002702811 54413 NLGN3 neuroligin 3 −0.011908051 0.036888142 −0.044683389 57502 NLGN4X neuroligin 4, X-linked 2.67E−05 0.007668168 0.013393044 4897 NRCAM neuronal cell adhesion molecule −0.013128594 0.025167969 0.008887784 9378 NRXN1 neurexin 1 0.004668303 0.00306404 0.014473627 9379 NRXN2 neurexin 2 −0.006733002 0.024749788 0.022484737 9369 NRXN3 neurexin 3 0.005539886 0.006189821 0.025016294 5133 PDCD1 programmed cell death 1 −0.010628035 0.01836237 0.022730327 80380 PDCD1LG2 programmed cell death 1 ligand 2 −0.004544248 −0.010975565 0.107969099 5175 PECAM1 platelet/endothelial cell adhesion molecule 0.009384994 0.031087671 −0.062141904 5788 PTPRC protein tyrosine phosphatase, receptor type, C 0.029953541 0.052065502 −0.079110798 5792 PTPRF protein tyrosine phosphatase, receptor type, F 0.000257974 0.002020447 0.00988409 5797 PTPRM protein tyrosine phosphatase, receptor type, M 0.005420785 0.015432856 −0.010124362 5817 PVR poliovirus receptor −0.014158252 −0.036058935 0.021723267 5818 PVRL1 poliovirus receptor-related 1 (herpesvirus entry mediator C) −0.011735308 0.000260702 0.026818657 5819 PVRL2 poliovirus receptor-related 2 (herpesvirus entry mediator B) −0.011539664 0.002351024 −0.038437858 25945 PVRL3 poliovirus receptor-related 3 −0.011905823 0.005037865 0.003288437 6382 SDC1 syndecan 1 −0.019857829 0.021201147 0.038020518 6383 SDC2 syndecan 2 −0.005418212 0.014879004 −0.057896138 9672 SDC3 syndecan 3 0.003838367 −0.028880609 −0.001916696 6385 SDC4 syndecan 4 −0.072386169 −0.012167268 −0.017701823 6401 SELE selectin E 0.013781319 0.003429621 0.013906607 6402 SELL selectin L −0.018456498 −0.127088787 0.032598897 6403 SELP selectin P (granule membrane protein 140 kDa, antigen CD62) −0.075085727 −0.075282584 −0.103979756 6404 SELPLG selectin P ligand −0.062770554 −0.054784741 0.024381444 6614 SIGLEC1 sialic acid binding Ig-like lectin 1, sialoadhesin −0.026514986 −0.025197147 −0.001327582 6693 SPN sialophorin −0.013962579 −0.034302249 0.113322612 7412 VCAM1 vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 0.005986912 −0.000865252 0.011003814 1462 VCAN versican 0.057379648 −0.013631561 −0.01449824 4950 [No Symbol] [No Name] −0.005497578 0.010034093 0.048821038

TABLE 9 Top pathways for which the number of mutations differed significantly between hereditary breast cancer cases and controls. For a given sample, a pathway was considered to be affected if any suspected pathogenic mutation had been observed in any gene in that pathway. The Fisher's exact test was used to compare the number of mutated samples between those who developed cancer and those who did not. Pathway p-value KEGG CITRATE CYCLE TCA CYCLE 0.007 BIOCARTA ARAP PATHWAY 0.013 REACTOME METABOLISM OF PROTEINS 0.012 REACTOME MEMBRANE TRAFFICKING 0.010 REACTOME SIGNALING IN IMMUNE SYSTEM 0.014 KEGG PARKINSONS DISEASE 0.015 REACTOME GLUCOSE AND OTHER SUGAR SLC TRANSPORTERS 0.015 REACTOME METAL ION SLC TRANSPORTERS 0.035 REACTOME ZINC INFLUX INTO CELLS BY THE SLC39 GENES FAMILY 0.035 REACTOME ZINC TRANSPORTATION 0.035 KEGG PROTEIN EXPORT 0.024 KEGG TASTE TRANSDUCTION 0.035 REACTOME SLC MEDIATED TRANSMEMBRANE TRANSPORT 0.030 KEGG VITAMIN DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION 0.037 REACTOME COLLAGEN MEDIATED ACTIVATION CASCADE 0.037 KEGG FRUCTOSE AND MANNOSE METABOLISM 0.037 REACTOME FORMATION AND MATURATION OF MRNA TRANSCRIPT 0.027 REACTOME CITRIC ACID CYCLE 0.036 REACTOME REGULATED PROTEOLYSIS OF P75NTR 0.036 ST B CELL ANTIGEN RECEPTOR 0.036 KEGG TYPE II DIABETES MELLITUS 0.037 KEGG CHOLINERGIC SYNAPSE 0.042 REACTOME AMINE LIGAND BINDING RECEPTORS 0.042 KEGG CELL ADHESION MOLECULES CAMS 0.058 KEGG PURINE METABOLISM 0.058 REACTOME INTEGRIN CELL SURFACE INTERACTIONS 0.058 REACTOME LATE PHASE OF HIV LIFE CYCLE 0.058 REACTOME CDT1 ASSOCIATION WITH THE CDC6 ORC ORIGIN COMPLEX 0.086 REACTOME M G1 TRANSITION 0.086 REACTOME ORC1 REMOVAL FROM CHROMATIN 0.086 REACTOME COPI MEDIATED TRANSPORT 0.086 BIOCARTA HSP27 PATHWAY 0.086 REACTOME INTRINSIC PATHWAY FOR APOPTOSIS 0.086 REACTOME AUTODEGRADATION OF CDH1 BY CDH1 APC 0.086 REACTOME BILE SALT AND ORGANIC ANION SLC TRANSPORTERS 0.086 REACTOME RNA POLYMERASE II TRANSCRIPTION 0.052 KEGG LONG TERM POTENTIATION 0.074 REACTOME RNA POLYMERASE I CHAIN ELONGATION 0.086 REACTOME RNA POLYMERASE I PROMOTER ESCAPE 0.086 REACTOME RNA POLYMERASE I TRANSCRIPTION TERMINATION 0.086 KEGG MISMATCH REPAIR 0.074 KEGG OLFACTORY TRANSDUCTION 0.086 REACTOME REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION IN BETA CELLS 0.072 KEGG HOMOLOGOUS RECOMBINATION 0.072 KEGG RIBOFLAVIN METABOLISM 0.086 BIOCARTA GH PATHWAY 0.072 REACTOME PYRUVATE METABOLISM 0.086 SIG CHEMOTAXIS 0.072 KEGG RETINOL METABOLISM 0.074 REACTOME A THIRD PROTEOLYTIC CLEAVAGE RELEASES NICD 0.074 REACTOME NRIF SIGNALS CELL DEATH FROM THE NUCLEUS 0.074 BIOCARTA RACCYCD PATHWAY 0.074 KEGG PANCREATIC SECRETION 0.052 REACTOME COSTIMULATION BY THE CD28 FAMILY 0.074 ST GAQ PATHWAY 0.074 KEGG PENTOSE AND GLUCURONATE INTERCONVERSIONS 0.074 REACTOME ASSOCIATION OF TRIC CCT WITH TARGET PROTEINS DURING . . . 0.072 REACTOME CHAPERONIN MEDIATED PROTEIN FOLDING 0.072 SIG PIP3 SIGNALING IN B LYMPHOCYTES 0.074 ST ADRENERGIC 0.074 SIG PIP3 SIGNALING IN CARDIAC MYOCTES 0.074 KEGG INTESTINAL IMMUNE NETWORK FOR IGA PRODUCTION 0.074 KEGG DNA REPLICATION 0.104 KEGG FAT DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION 0.104 REACTOME PLATELET ACTIVATION TRIGGERS 0.104 KEGG ERBB SIGNALING PATHWAY 0.104 REACTOME REGULATION OF BETA CELL DEVELOPMENT 0.104 REACTOME TRANSCRIPTION OF THE HIV GENOME 0.104 BIOCARTA IL2RB PATHWAY 0.104 KEGG PANCREATIC CANCER 0.077 KEGG NEUROTROPHIN SIGNALING PATHWAY 0.077 KEGG AMYOTROPHIC LATERAL SCLEROSIS ALS 0.120 KEGG ALANINE ASPARTATE AND GLUTAMATE METABOLISM 0.120 BIOCARTA CTCF PATHWAY 0.132 REACTOME CLATHRIN DERIVED VESICLE BUDDING 0.120 REACTOME GOLGI ASSOCIATED VESICLE BIOGENESIS 0.120 KEGG SMALL CELL LUNG CANCER 0.132 REACTOME OLFACTORY SIGNALING PATHWAY 0.120 BIOCARTA TGFB PATHWAY 0.132 REACTOME FORMATION OF FIBRIN CLOT CLOTTING CASCADE 0.132 KEGG TGF BETA SIGNALING PATHWAY 0.120 REACTOME AMINE COMPOUND SLC TRANSPORTERS 0.120 REACTOME TRAFFICKING OF AMPA RECEPTORS 0.131 REACTOME CELL SURFACE INTERACTIONS AT THE VASCULAR WALL 0.094 REACTOME FANCONI ANEMIA PATHWAY 0.202 REACTOME FORMATION OF A POOL OF FREE 40S SUBUNITS 0.131 REACTOME GTP HYDROLYSIS AND JOINING OF THE 60S RIBOSOMAL SUB . . . 0.131 REACTOME TRANSLATION 0.131 KEGG VIRAL MYOCARDITIS 0.137 KEGG REGULATION OF AUTOPHAGY 0.202 KEGG PHOSPHATIDYLINOSITOL SIGNALING SYSTEM 0.094 BIOCARTA ATM PATHWAY 0.131 REACTOME SIGNALLING TO ERKS 0.202 REACTOME SIGNALLING TO RAS 0.202 KEGG PRIMARY BILE ACID BIOSYNTHESIS 0.202 REACTOME ENDOGENOUS STEROLS 0.202 REACTOME METABOLISM OF BILE ACIDS AND BILE SALTS 0.202 REACTOME SYNTHESIS OF BILE ACIDS AND BILE SALTS 0.202 REACTOME SYNTHESIS OF BILE ACIDS AND BILE SALTS VIA 7ALPHA H . . . 0.202 REACTOME IMMUNOREGULATORY INTERACTIONS BETWEEN A LYMPHOID AN . . . 0.131 BIOCARTA P53HYPOXIA PATHWAY 0.131 BIOCARTA PAR1 PATHWAY 0.131 REACTOME SYNTHESIS OF GLYCOSYLPHOSPHATIDYLINOSITOL 0.131 BIOCARTA NKCELLS PATHWAY 0.131 KEGG PROTEASOME 0.202 REACTOME REGULATION OF ORNITHINE DECARBOXYLASE 0.202 REACTOME SCF BETA TRCP MEDIATED DEGRADATION OF EMI1 0.202 REACTOME SIGNALING BY WNT 0.202 REACTOME VIF MEDIATED DEGRADATION OF APOBEC3G 0.202 SIG BCR SIGNALING PATHWAY 0.131 BIOCARTA ACH PATHWAY 0.131 BIOCARTA AGR PATHWAY 0.131 REACTOME LYSOSOME VESICLE BIOGENESIS 0.202 KEGG NON HOMOLOGOUS END JOINING 0.202 REACTOME APOPTOTIC CLEAVAGE OF CELL ADHESION PROTEINS 0.202 REACTOME CASPASE MEDIATED CLEAVAGE OF CYTOSKELETAL PROTEINS 0.202 SA FAS SIGNALING 0.202 ST GRANULE CELL SURVIVAL PATHWAY 0.202 BIOCARTA PROTEASOME PATHWAY 0.202 REACTOME NA CL DEPENDENT NEUROTRANSMITTER TRANSPORTERS 0.202 REACTOME G PROTEIN ACTIVATION 0.202 BIOCARTA NUCLEARRS PATHWAY 0.202 BIOCARTA CHREBP2 PATHWAY 0.202 KEGG FATTY ACID BIOSYNTHESIS 0.202 REACTOME TAT MEDIATED HIV1 ELONGATION ARREST AND RECOVERY 0.148 BIOCARTA CELL2CELL PATHWAY 0.202 BIOCARTA HIF PATHWAY 0.202 REACTOME UNFOLDED PROTEIN RESPONSE 0.202 BIOCARTA LEPTIN PATHWAY 0.202 REACTOME CHOLESTEROL BIOSYNTHESIS 0.148 REACTOME TRANSMEMBRANE TRANSPORT OF SMALL MOLECULES 0.176 KEGG AMINOACYL TRNA BIOSYNTHESIS 0.176 REACTOME MITOCHONDRIAL TRNA AMINOACYLATION 0.176 REACTOME TRNA AMINOACYLATION 0.176 ST MYOCYTE AD PATHWAY 0.148 KEGG ENDOMETRIAL CANCER 0.176 BIOCARTA EDG1 PATHWAY 0.148 BIOCARTA EIF4 PATHWAY 0.148 BIOCARTA MTOR PATHWAY 0.148 REACTOME CD28 CO STIMULATION 0.148 REACTOME INFLUENZA LIFE CYCLE 0.176 KEGG OOCYTE MEIOSIS 0.176 KEGG ASCORBATE AND ALDARATE METABOLISM 0.148 SIG INSULIN RECEPTOR PATHWAY IN CARDIAC MYOCYTES 0.148 KEGG LONG TERM DEPRESSION 0.176 REACTOME DOWNSTREAM TCR SIGNALING 0.148 REACTOME G2 M TRANSITION 0.148 REACTOME TCR SIGNALING 0.148 KEGG B CELL RECEPTOR SIGNALING PATHWAY 0.176 REACTOME CELL DEATH SIGNALLING VIA NRAGE NRIF AND NADE 0.176 KEGG MATURITY ONSET DIABETES OF THE YOUNG 0.148 KEGG ACUTE MYELOID LEUKEMIA 0.176 BIOCARTA FCER1 PATHWAY 0.148 REACTOME PLATELET ADHESION TO EXPOSED COLLAGEN 0.176 BIOCARTA RAC1 PATHWAY 0.176 REACTOME MITOTIC M M G1 PHASES 0.141 REACTOME TRANSMISSION ACROSS CHEMICAL SYNAPSES 0.156 ST INTEGRIN SIGNALING PATHWAY 0.212 BIOCARTA TOB1 PATHWAY 0.212 REACTOME APOPTOSIS INDUCED DNA FRAGMENTATION 0.238 KEGG PROSTATE CANCER 0.176 REACTOME ELONGATION AND PROCESSING OF CAPPED TRANSCRIPTS 0.156 BIOCARTA TNFR1 PATHWAY 0.212 KEGG HEPATITIS C 0.176 KEGG PROPANOATE METABOLISM 0.156 REACTOME HIV LIFE CYCLE 0.156 KEGG CALCIUM SIGNALING PATHWAY 0.223 BIOCARTA MITOCHONDRIA PATHWAY 0.238 KEGG RNA POLYMERASE 0.238 BIOCARTA IL10 PATHWAY 0.238 BIOCARTA IL22BP PATHWAY 0.238 KEGG HUNTINGTONS DISEASE 0.223 KEGG OSTEOCLAST DIFFERENTIATION 0.223 KEGG PYRIMIDINE METABOLISM 0.194 BIOCARTA SET PATHWAY 0.227 REACTOME INSULIN SYNTHESIS AND SECRETION 0.234 KEGG NOD LIKE RECEPTOR SIGNALING PATHWAY 0.234 KEGG PEROXISOME 0.223 KEGG RIBOSOME 0.227 REACTOME INFLUENZA VIRAL RNA TRANSCRIPTION AND REPLICATION 0.227 REACTOME PEPTIDE CHAIN ELONGATION 0.227 REACTOME VIRAL MRNA TRANSLATION 0.227 KEGG ARRHYTHMOGENIC RIGHT VENTRICULAR CARDIOMYOPATHY ARVC 0.234 REACTOME GAP JUNCTION TRAFFICKING 0.238 REACTOME BIOLOGICAL OXIDATIONS 0.223 REACTOME RNA POLYMERASE I TRANSCRIPTION INITIATION 0.238 BIOCARTA 41BB PATHWAY 0.227 BIOCARTA AMI PATHWAY 0.227 BIOCARTA CERAMIDE PATHWAY 0.227 BIOCARTA EXTRINSIC PATHWAY 0.227 BIOCARTA INTRINSIC PATHWAY 0.227 BIOCARTA STRESS PATHWAY 0.227 BIOCARTA TALL1 PATHWAY 0.227 BIOCARTA TNFR2 PATHWAY 0.227 REACTOME COMMON PATHWAY 0.227 REACTOME G ALPHA 12 13 SIGNALLING EVENTS 0.227 REACTOME GLYCOLYSIS 0.227 KEGG ALLOGRAFT REJECTION 0.227 BIOCARTA CARDIACEGF PATHWAY 0.227 BIOCARTA G2 PATHWAY 0.227 BIOCARTA NKT PATHWAY 0.227 KEGG ARGININE AND PROLINE METABOLISM 0.227 KEGG BASAL CELL CARCINOMA 0.227 BIOCARTA ECM PATHWAY 0.227 BIOCARTA SODD PATHWAY 0.227 BIOCARTA P53 PATHWAY 0.227 REACTOME SIGNALING BY EGFR 0.227 BIOCARTA CXCR4 PATHWAY 0.227 BIOCARTA GCR PATHWAY 0.227 KEGG LINOLEIC ACID METABOLISM 0.227 BIOCARTA BIOPEPTIDES PATHWAY 0.248 BIOCARTA EGF PATHWAY 0.248 BIOCARTA PDGF PATHWAY 0.248 REACTOME NEURORANSMITTER RECEPTOR BINDING AND DOWNSTREAM 0.280 TRA . . . REACTOME RNA POLYMERASE I PROMOTER CLEARANCE 0.248 REACTOME HEMOSTASIS 0.248 REACTOME DOWN STREAM SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION 0.248 REACTOME PI3K AKT SIGNALLING 0.280 BIOCARTA CHEMICAL PATHWAY 0.248 KEGG T CELL RECEPTOR SIGNALING PATHWAY 0.280 KEGG NUCLEOTIDE EXCISION REPAIR 0.280 REACTOME MRNA 3 END PROCESSING 0.280 REACTOME METABOLISM OF VITAMINS AND COFACTORS 0.280 KEGG BASE EXCISION REPAIR 0.248 KEGG PATHWAYS IN CANCER 0.248 REACTOME PHASE 1 FUNCTIONALIZATION OF COMPOUNDS 0.248 REACTOME HORMONE BIOSYNTHESIS 0.280 REACTOME RNA POLYMERASE I III AND MITOCHONDRIAL TRANSCRIPTIO . . . 0.248 BIOCARTA NTHI PATHWAY 0.280 KEGG AMINO SUGAR AND NUCLEOTIDE SUGAR METABOLISM 0.280 BIOCARTA IL7 PATHWAY 0.280 BIOCARTA INTEGRIN PATHWAY 0.248 KEGG BLADDER CANCER 0.280 REACTOME PLATELET AGGREGATION PLUG FORMATION 0.280 REACTOME SEMAPHORIN INTERACTIONS 0.319 REACTOME SYNTHESIS OF BILE ACIDS AND BILE SALTS VIA 24 HYDRO . . . 0.457 KEGG STEROID HORMONE BIOSYNTHESIS 0.280 KEGG GLYCOLYSIS GLUCONEOGENESIS 0.319 KEGG GLYCEROLIPID METABOLISM 0.319 KEGG BUTANOATE METABOLISM 0.319 BIOCARTA AKAP13 PATHWAY 0.457 KEGG CARDIAC MUSCLE CONTRACTION 0.248 REACTOME P75NTR RECRUITS SIGNALLING COMPLEXES 0.457 BIOCARTA PARKIN PATHWAY 0.457 KEGG THIAMINE METABOLISM 0.457 REACTOME REGULATION OF INSULIN LIKE GROWTH FACTOR 0.457 ACTIVITY B . . . REACTOME SIGNALING BY PDGF 0.243 SIG CD40PATHWAYMAP 0.319 BIOCARTA AKAPCENTROSOME PATHWAY 0.457 BIOCARTA CALCINEURIN PATHWAY 0.457 KEGG GLYCOSPHINGOLIPID BIOSYNTHESIS GLOBO SERIES 0.457 KEGG MINERAL ABSORPTION 0.319 REACTOME INHIBITION OF INSULIN SECRETION BY ADRENALINE 0.319 NORAD . . . REACTOME NEF MEDIATED DOWNREGULATION OF MHC CLASS I COMPLEX . . . 0.457 KEGG METABOLISM OF XENOBIOTICS BY CYTOCHROME P450 0.319 REACTOME GENE EXPRESSION 0.243 BIOCARTA IL17 PATHWAY 0.457 BIOCARTA RANKL PATHWAY 0.287 REACTOME AMINO ACID SYNTHESIS AND INTERCONVERSION 0.457 REACTOME TRKA SIGNALLING FROM THE PLASMA MEMBRANE 0.242 REACTOME INNATE IMMUNITY SIGNALING 0.319 REACTOME G ALPHA S SIGNALLING EVENTS 0.319 REACTOME SIGNALLING BY NGF 0.330 KEGG ADHERENS JUNCTION 0.319 KEGG BIOTIN METABOLISM 0.457 REACTOME CYTOSOLIC SULFONATION OF SMALL MOLECULES 0.457 REACTOME RETROGRADE NEUROTROPHIN SIGNALLING 0.457 REACTOME RNA POLYMERASE III CHAIN ELONGATION 0.457 REACTOME RNA POLYMERASE III TRANSCRIPTION INITIATION FROM TY . . . 0.457 REACTOME RNA POLYMERASE III TRANSCRIPTION INITIATION FROM TY . . . 0.457 REACTOME RNA POLYMERASE III TRANSCRIPTION TERMINATION 0.457 SA PROGRAMMED CELL DEATH 0.457 BIOCARTA ETS PATHWAY 0.457 KEGG CYANOAMINO ACID METABOLISM 0.457 KEGG TAURINE AND HYPOTAURINE METABOLISM 0.457 REACTOME GLYCOGEN BREAKDOWN GLYCOGENOLYSIS 0.457 KEGG TRYPTOPHAN METABOLISM 0.319 KEGG VASOPRESSIN REGULATED WATER REABSORPTION 0.287 KEGG VALINE LEUCINE AND ISOLEUCINE DEGRADATION 0.242 REACTOME ADP SIGNALLING THROUGH P2Y PURINOCEPTOR 12 0.457 REACTOME SIGNAL AMPLIFICATION 0.457 KEGG MELANOMA 0.242 ST G ALPHA I PATHWAY 0.287 ST WNT CA2 CYCLIC GMP PATHWAY 0.287 KEGG GLIOMA 0.242 BIOCARTA PLCE PATHWAY 0.457 BIOCARTA SARS PATHWAY 0.457 KEGG AFRICAN TRYPANOSOMIASIS 0.457 KEGG ENDOCRINE AND OTHER FACTOR REGULATED CALCIUM REABSORPTI . . . 0.287 KEGG TOLL LIKE RECEPTOR SIGNALING PATHWAY 0.319 REACTOME CELL CYCLE MITOTIC 0.330 REACTOME EICOSANOID LIGAND BINDING RECEPTORS 0.457 REACTOME MRNA SPLICING 0.319 REACTOME PURINE RIBONUCLEOSIDE MONOPHOSPHATE BIOSYNTHESIS 0.457 ST GA12 PATHWAY 0.287 BIOCARTA HIVNEF PATHWAY 0.267 BIOCARTA STATHMIN PATHWAY 0.457 KEGG TERPENOID BACKBONE BIOSYNTHESIS 0.287 REACTOME CDC6 ASSOCIATION WITH THE ORC: ORIGIN COMPLEX 0.457 REACTOME P38MAPK EVENTS 0.457 REACTOME POST CHAPERONIN TUBULIN FOLDING PATHWAY 0.457 KEGG INSULIN SIGNALING PATHWAY 0.242 BIOCARTA CELLCYCLE PATHWAY 0.287 KEGG ARACHIDONIC ACID METABOLISM 0.319 REACTOME E2F TRANSCRIPTIONAL TARGETS AT G1 S 0.287 REACTOME NRAGE SIGNALS DEATH THROUGH JNK 0.287 BIOCARTA PTDINS PATHWAY 0.287 REACTOME REMOVAL OF THE FLAP INTERMEDIATE FROM THE C STRAND 0.287 REACTOME VITAMIN B5 (PANTOTHENATE) METABOLISM 0.287 KEGG STEROID BIOSYNTHESIS 0.287 BIOCARTA CLASSIC PATHWAY 0.287 BIOCARTA COMP PATHWAY 0.287 KEGG VALINE LEUCINE AND ISOLEUCINE BIOSYNTHESIS 0.287 REACTOME CLASSICAL ANTIBODY MEDIATED COMPLEMENT ACTIVATION 0.287 REACTOME COMPLEMENT CASCADE 0.287 REACTOME INITIAL TRIGGERING OF COMPLEMENT 0.287 BIOCARTA AKAP95 PATHWAY 0.457 BIOCARTA LAIR PATHWAY 0.287 BIOCARTA LYM PATHWAY 0.287 BIOCARTA MONOCYTE PATHWAY 0.287 REACTOME ACTIVATED AMPK STIMULATES FATTY ACID OXIDATION IN M . . . 0.457 REACTOME APCDC20 MEDIATED DEGRADATION OF CYCLIN B 0.457 REACTOME CONVERSION FROM APC CDC20 TO APC CDH1 IN LATE ANAPH . . . 0.457 REACTOME GAP JUNCTION DEGRADATION 0.457 REACTOME INORGANIC CATION ANION SLC TRANSPORTERS 0.330 REACTOME PHOSPHORYLATION OF THE APC 0.457 REACTOME REGULATION OF PYRUVATE DEHYDROGENASE COMPLEX 0.457 REACTOME REGULATION OF RHEB GTPASE ACTIVITY BY AMPK 0.457 REACTOME SIGNALING BY TGF BETA 0.352 REACTOME TRAFFICKING OF GLUR2 CONTAINING AMPA RECEPTORS 0.287 BIOCARTA IL4 PATHWAY 0.457 BIOCARTA MEF2D PATHWAY 0.457 REACTOME DUAL INCISION REACTION IN TC NER 0.457 REACTOME ERKS ARE INACTIVATED 0.457 REACTOME ERK MAPK TARGETS 0.457 REACTOME MAPK TARGETS NUCLEAR EVENTS MEDIATED BY MAP KINASES 0.457 REACTOME MAP KINASES ACTIVATION IN TLR CASCADE 0.457 REACTOME MRNA PROCESSING 0.457 REACTOME NUCLEAR EVENTS KINASE AND TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR ACTI . . . 0.457 REACTOME RNA POL II CTD PHOSPHORYLATION AND INTERACTION WITH . . . 0.457 KEGG ECM RECEPTOR INTERACTION 0.267 REACTOME HIV INFECTION 0.290 REACTOME PD1 SIGNALING 0.287 REACTOME VIRAL DSRNA TLR3 TRIF COMPLEX ACTIVATES RIP1 0.287 BIOCARTA SPPA PATHWAY 0.287 KEGG FC EPSILON RI SIGNALING PATHWAY 0.352 KEGG WNT SIGNALING PATHWAY 0.352 KEGG LYSINE DEGRADATION 0.347 REACTOME CLASS C3 METABOTROPIC GLUTAMATE PHEROMONE RECEPTORS 0.287 REACTOME PLATELET ACTIVATION 0.330 BIOCARTA ALK PATHWAY 0.352 KEGG PRION DISEASES 0.287 REACTOME REGULATION OF INSULIN SECRETION 0.311 BIOCARTA BCR PATHWAY 0.287 SA B CELL RECEPTOR COMPLEXES 0.287 KEGG NATURAL KILLER CELL MEDIATED CYTOTOXICITY 0.290 KEGG RIG I LIKE RECEPTOR SIGNALING PATHWAY 0.352 BIOCARTA BAD PATHWAY 0.287 BIOCARTA CDC42RAC PATHWAY 0.287 BIOCARTA CREB PATHWAY 0.287 BIOCARTA CTLA4 PATHWAY 0.287 BIOCARTA FIBRINOLYSIS PATHWAY 0.287 BIOCARTA IGF1MTOR PATHWAY 0.287 BIOCARTA IGF1R PATHWAY 0.287 BIOCARTA LONGEVITY PATHWAY 0.287 BIOCARTA NFAT PATHWAY 0.287 BIOCARTA NGF PATHWAY 0.287 BIOCARTA PTEN PATHWAY 0.287 BIOCARTA TRKA PATHWAY 0.287 KEGG PORPHYRIN AND CHLOROPHYLL METABOLISM 0.287 REACTOME CD28 DEPENDENT PI3K AKT SIGNALING 0.287 REACTOME GAB1 SIGNALOSOME 0.287 REACTOME GLUCURONIDATION 0.287 REACTOME HDL MEDIATED LIPID TRANSPORT 0.287 REACTOME LIPOPROTEIN METABOLISM 0.287 REACTOME TIE2 SIGNALING 0.287 SA TRKA RECEPTOR 0.287 ST DIFFERENTIATION PATHWAY IN PC 12 CELLS 0.287 ST PHOSPHOINOSITIDE 3 KINASE PATHWAY 0.287 KEGG CHRONIC MYELOID LEUKEMIA 0.311 REACTOME POST TRANSLATIONAL PROTEIN MODIFICATION 0.352 REACTOME FORMATION OF PLATELET PLUG 0.347 KEGG APOPTOSIS 0.267 KEGG COLORECTAL CANCER 0.242 REACTOME P75 NTR RECEPTOR MEDIATED SIGNALLING 0.352 KEGG NOTCH SIGNALING PATHWAY 0.352 REACTOME AXON GUIDANCE 0.290 REACTOME METABOLISM OF LIPIDS AND LIPOPROTEINS 0.347 REACTOME TRANSCRIPTION 0.330 KEGG ASTHMA 0.287 REACTOME CENTROSOME MATURATION 0.287 REACTOME LOSS OF NLP FROM MITOTIC CENTROSOMES 0.287 KEGG REGULATION OF ACTIN CYTOSKELETON 0.347 KEGG AXON GUIDANCE 0.290 KEGG INOSITOL PHOSPHATE METABOLISM 0.352 KEGG VASCULAR SMOOTH MUSCLE CONTRACTION 0.311 KEGG GLYCOSPHINGOLIPID BIOSYNTHESIS GANGLIO SERIES 0.287 KEGG COLLECTING DUCT ACID SECRETION 0.434 REACTOME HIV1 TRANSCRIPTION ELONGATION 0.370 BIOCARTA ETC PATHWAY 0.434 REACTOME TRANSPORT OF MATURE MRNA DERIVED FROM AN INTRON 0.434 CON . . . REACTOME TRANSPORT OF THE SLBP INDEPENDENT MATURE MRNA 0.434 REACTOME P53 INDEPENDENT DNA DAMAGE RESPONSE 0.434 BIOCARTA CYTOKINE PATHWAY 0.434 REACTOME EARLY PHASE OF HIV LIFE CYCLE 0.434 REACTOME GENES INVOLVED IN APOPTOTIC CLEAVAGE OF CELLULAR PR . . . 0.434 REACTOME DOPAMINE NEUROTRANSMITTER RELEASE CYCLE 0.434 REACTOME SEROTONIN NEUROTRANSMITTER RELEASE CYCLE 0.434 KEGG MUCIN TYPE O GLYCAN BIOSYNTHESIS 0.434 REACTOME GLUCONEOGENESIS 0.370 KEGG NITROGEN METABOLISM 0.434 REACTOME RNA POLYMERASE III TRANSCRIPTION 0.434 REACTOME RNA POLYMERASE III TRANSCRIPTION INITIATION 0.434 BIOCARTA PITX2 PATHWAY 0.434 REACTOME G ALPHA Z SIGNALLING EVENTS 0.434 REACTOME DOUBLE STRAND BREAK REPAIR 0.434 BIOCARTA DNAFRAGMENT PATHWAY 0.434 REACTOME SCF SKP2 MEDIATED DEGRADATION OF P27 P21 0.434 REACTOME TOLL LIKE RECEPTOR 3 CASCADE 0.370 REACTOME PACKAGING OF TELOMERE ENDS 0.434 REACTOME RNA POLYMERASE I PROMOTER OPENING 0.434 REACTOME BRANCHED CHAIN AMINO ACID CATABOLISM 0.370 REACTOME MYD88 CASCADE 0.434 REACTOME TOLL LIKE RECEPTOR 9 CASCADE 0.434 KEGG OTHER GLYCAN DEGRADATION 0.434 BIOCARTA CTL PATHWAY 0.370 KEGG GRAFT VERSUS HOST DISEASE 0.370 KEGG TYPE I DIABETES MELLITUS 0.370 REACTOME DEATH RECEPTOR SIGNALLING 0.370 SA G1 AND S PHASES 0.370 BIOCARTA AKT PATHWAY 0.370 BIOCARTA ERYTH PATHWAY 0.434 BIOCARTA RAS PATHWAY 0.370 REACTOME DOWNSTREAM SIGNALING OF ACTIVATED FGFR 0.370 REACTOME PI3K CASCADE 0.370 REACTOME ACTIVATION OF RAC 0.434 BIOCARTA SPRY PATHWAY 0.434 KEGG PENTOSE PHOSPHATE PATHWAY 0.434 BIOCARTA GLEEVEC PATHWAY 0.370 REACTOME GAP JUNCTION ASSEMBLY 0.434 REACTOME DNA STRAND ELONGATION 0.370 REACTOME LAGGING STRAND SYNTHESIS 0.370 REACTOME REMOVAL OF THE FLAP INTERMEDIATE 0.370 BIOCARTA G1 PATHWAY 0.370 BIOCARTA MCALPAIN PATHWAY 0.370 REACTOME GRB2 SOS PROVIDES LINKAGE TO MAPK SIGNALING FOR INT . . . 0.370 REACTOME INTEGRIN ALPHAIIBBETA3 SIGNALING 0.370 REACTOME P130CAS LINKAGE TO MAPK SIGNALING FOR INTEGRINS 0.370 SIG REGULATION OF THE ACTIN CYTOSKELETON BY RHO GTPASES 0.370 KEGG ANTIGEN PROCESSING AND PRESENTATION 0.434 BIOCARTA ATRBRCA PATHWAY 0.370 BIOCARTA TID PATHWAY 0.370 BIOCARTA IL12 PATHWAY 0.370 REACTOME PLC BETA MEDIATED EVENTS 0.370 REACTOME PLC GAMMA1 SIGNALLING 0.370 REACTOME APOPTOTIC EXECUTION PHASE 0.415 BIOCARTA HCMV PATHWAY 0.370 ST INTERLEUKIN 4 PATHWAY 0.370 KEGG GLYCOSPHINGOLIPID BIOSYNTHESIS LACTO AND NEOLACTO SERIE . . . 0.415 BIOCARTA IL1R PATHWAY 0.415 KEGG GALACTOSE METABOLISM 0.415 KEGG GLUTATHIONE METABOLISM 0.415 REACTOME CDC20 PHOSPHO APC MEDIATED DEGRADATION OF CYCLIN A 0.415 REACTOME REGULATION OF APC ACTIVATORS BETWEEN G1 S AND EARLY . . . 0.415 KEGG MALARIA 0.415 KEGG STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS INFECTION 0.418 KEGG HEDGEHOG SIGNALING PATHWAY 0.415 REACTOME ACTIVATION OF ATR IN RESPONSE TO REPLICATION STRESS 0.418 REACTOME G2 M CHECKPOINTS 0.418 REACTOME HIV1 TRANSCRIPTION INITIATION 0.418 BIOCARTA GSK3 PATHWAY 0.418 REACTOME GLUCOSE TRANSPORT 0.418 REACTOME SIGNALING BY NOTCH 0.418 REACTOME EXTENSION OF TELOMERES 0.418 BIOCARTA UCALPAIN PATHWAY 0.415 KEGG NICOTINATE AND NICOTINAMIDE METABOLISM 0.418 REACTOME INTRINSIC PATHWAY 0.452 KEGG SYSTEMIC LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS 0.398 REACTOME CLASS B2 SECRETIN FAMILY RECEPTORS 0.418 KEGG MELANOGENESIS 0.418 REACTOME GPCR LIGAND BINDING 0.398 REACTOME CYTOCHROME P450 ARRANGED BY SUBSTRATE TYPE 0.398 BIOCARTA MET PATHWAY 0.398 KEGG CYSTEINE AND METHIONINE METABOLISM 0.418 REACTOME GLUCOSE METABOLISM 0.418 KEGG MTOR SIGNALING PATHWAY 0.418 KEGG PPAR SIGNALING PATHWAY 0.398 KEGG NON SMALL CELL LUNG CANCER 0.452 REACTOME MITOCHONDRIAL FATTY ACID BETA OXIDATION 0.381 KEGG GLYCOSAMINOGLYCAN BIOSYNTHESIS HEPARAN SULFATE 0.481 KEGG ADIPOCYTOKINE SIGNALING PATHWAY 0.481 REACTOME IRS RELATED EVENTS 0.452 REACTOME PYRUVATE METABOLISM AND TCA CYCLE 0.452 KEGG SPLICEOSOME 0.381 KEGG FATTYACID METABOLISM 0.364 KEGG PROTEIN PROCESSING IN ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM 0.404 KEGG GLYCEROPHOSPHOLIPID METABOLISM 0.452 KEGG BASAL TRANSCRIPTION FACTORS 0.481 REACTOME ACTIVATION OF THE PRE REPLICATIVE COMPLEX 0.481 KEGG ENDOCYTOSIS 0.381 BIOCARTA TPO PATHWAY 0.452 KEGG HEMATOPOIETIC CELL LINEAGE 0.379 REACTOME DIABETES PATHWAYS 0.381 BIOCARTA ARF PATHWAY 0.452 KEGG GLYCOSYLPHOSPHATIDYLINOSITOLGPI ANCHOR BIOSYNTHESIS 0.364 REACTOME SYNTHESIS OF GPI ANCHORED PROTEINS 0.452 KEGG BACTERIAL INVASION OF EPITHELIAL CELLS 0.452 REACTOME AMINO ACID AND OLIGOPEPTIDE SLC TRANSPORTERS 0.505 ST FAS SIGNALING PATHWAY 0.452 KEGG TIGHT JUNCTION 0.381 REACTOME METABOLISM OF AMINO ACIDS 0.379 REACTOME METABOLISM OF CARBOHYDRATES 0.505 ST TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR PATHWAY 0.452 KEGG ALZHEIMERS DISEASE 0.427 KEGG RENAL CELL CARCINOMA 0.481 KEGG LEUKOCYTE TRANSENDOTHELIAL MIGRATION 0.449 KEGG CHAGAS DISEASE AMERICAN TRYPANOSOMIASIS 0.379 KEGG N GLYCAN BIOSYNTHESIS 0.364 REACTOME APOPTOSIS 0.364 REACTOME PROCESSING OF CAPPED INTRON CONTAINING PRE MRNA 0.379 KEGG PROTEIN DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION 0.505 KEGG SALIVARY SECRETION 0.379 KEGG PHAGOSOME 0.404 KEGG AMOEBIASIS 0.505 KEGG GLUTAMATERGIC SYNAPSE 0.404 REACTOME G1 S TRANSITION 0.505 KEGG DILATED CARDIOMYOPATHY 0.528 BIOCARTA P38MAPK PATHWAY 0.528 BIOCARTA CASPASE PATHWAY 0.481 KEGG TUBERCULOSIS 0.528 REACTOME PEPTIDE LIGAND BINDING RECEPTORS 0.449 REACTOME PLATELET DEGRANULATION 0.528 KEGG RNA DEGRADATION 0.505 KEGG CELL CYCLE 0.528 KEGG LYSOSOME 0.528 REACTOME G ALPHA Q SIGNALLING EVENTS 0.551 BIOCARTA ACE2 PATHWAY 0.566 BIOCARTA ACTINY PATHWAY 0.543 BIOCARTA AT1R PATHWAY 0.752 BIOCARTA BCELLSURVIVAL PATHWAY 0.762 BIOCARTA CACAM PATHWAY 0.543 BIOCARTA CARM ER PATHWAY 0.762 BIOCARTA CCR3 PATHWAY 0.798 BIOCARTA CCR5 PATHWAY 0.566 BIOCARTA CD40 PATHWAY 0.543 BIOCARTA CDMAC PATHWAY 0.543 BIOCARTA CK1 PATHWAY 0.543 BIOCARTA D4GDI PATHWAY 0.752 BIOCARTA DC PATHWAY 0.543 BIOCARTA DEATH PATHWAY 0.619 BIOCARTA DREAM PATHWAY 0.798 BIOCARTA EGFR SMRTE PATHWAY 0.543 BIOCARTA EIF PATHWAY 0.798 BIOCARTA EPHA4 PATHWAY 0.543 BIOCARTA EPONFKB PATHWAY 0.566 BIOCARTA EPO PATHWAY 0.566 BIOCARTA ERK5 PATHWAY 0.566 BIOCARTA ERK PATHWAY 0.543 BIOCARTA FAS PATHWAY 0.585 BIOCARTA FEEDER PATHWAY 0.762 BIOCARTA FMLP PATHWAY 0.585 BIOCARTA FREE PATHWAY 0.543 BIOCARTA GABA PATHWAY 0.798 BIOCARTA GATA3 PATHWAY 0.543 BIOCARTA GLYCOLYSIS PATHWAY 0.798 BIOCARTA HDAC PATHWAY 0.762 BIOCARTA HER2 PATHWAY 0.566 BIOCARTA IGF1 PATHWAY 0.762 BIOCARTA IL2 PATHWAY 0.762 BIOCARTA IL3 PATHWAY 0.566 BIOCARTA IL5 PATHWAY 0.543 BIOCARTA IL6 PATHWAY 0.798 BIOCARTA INFLAM PATHWAY 0.762 BIOCARTA INSULIN PATHWAY 0.585 BIOCARTA KERATINOCYTE PATHWAY 0.602 BIOCARTA MAL PATHWAY 0.543 BIOCARTA MAPK PATHWAY 0.551 BIOCARTA MCM PATHWAY 0.798 BIOCARTA MYOSIN PATHWAY 0.566 BIOCARTA NEUROTRANSMITTERS PATHWAY 0.566 BIOCARTA NFKB PATHWAY 0.798 BIOCARTA NO2IL12 PATHWAY 0.566 BIOCARTA P27 PATHWAY 0.543 BIOCARTA P35ALZHEIMERS PATHWAY 0.543 BIOCARTA PGC1A PATHWAY 0.798 BIOCARTA PML PATHWAY 0.543 BIOCARTA PPARA PATHWAY 0.585 BIOCARTA PS1 PATHWAY 0.566 BIOCARTA PTC1 PATHWAY 0.543 BIOCARTA PYK2 PATHWAY 0.798 BIOCARTA RARRXR PATHWAY 0.798 BIOCARTA RELA PATHWAY 0.543 BIOCARTA RHO PATHWAY 0.566 BIOCARTA RNA PATHWAY 0.543 BIOCARTA SALMONELLA PATHWAY 0.543 BIOCARTA SKP2E2F PATHWAY 0.543 BIOCARTA SRCRPTP PATHWAY 0.543 BIOCARTA STEM PATHWAY 0.798 BIOCARTA TCAPOPTOSIS PATHWAY 0.543 BIOCARTA TCR PATHWAY 0.585 BIOCARTA TEL PATHWAY 0.543 BIOCARTA TFF PATHWAY 0.566 BIOCARTA TH1TH2 PATHWAY 0.566 BIOCARTA TOLL PATHWAY 0.762 BIOCARTA VDR PATHWAY 0.543 BIOCARTA VEGF PATHWAY 0.566 BIOCARTA VIP PATHWAY 0.543 BIOCARTA VITCB PATHWAY 0.798 BIOCARTA WNT PATHWAY 0.798 KEGG ABC TRANSPORTERS 0.798 KEGG ALDOSTERONE REGULATED SODIUM REABSORPTION 0.585 KEGG ALPHA LINOLENIC ACID METABOLISM 0.566 KEGG AUTOIMMUNE THYROID DISEASE 0.602 KEGG BETA ALANINE METABOLISM 0.602 KEGG BILE SECRETION 0.757 KEGG BIOSYNTHESIS OF UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS 0.602 KEGG CARBOHYDRATE DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION 0.752 KEGG CHEMOKINE SIGNALING PATHWAY 0.670 KEGG CIRCADIAN RHYTHM MAMMAL 0.543 KEGG COMPLEMENT AND COAGULATION CASCADES 0.619 KEGG CYTOKINE CYTOKINE RECEPTOR INTERACTION 0.602 KEGG CYTOSOLIC DNA SENSING PATHWAY 0.602 KEGG DRUG METABOLISM CYTOCHROME P450 0.602 KEGG DRUG METABOLISM OTHER ENZYMES 0.585 KEGG D ARGININE AND D ORNITHINE METABOLISM 0.543 KEGG EPITHELIAL CELL SIGNALING IN HELICOBACTER PYLORI INFECT . . . 0.602 KEGG ETHER LIPID METABOLISM 0.585 KEGG FATTY ACID ELONGATION IN MITOCHONDRIA 0.752 KEGG FC GAMMA R MEDIATED PHAGOCYTOSIS 0.653 KEGG FOCAL ADHESION 0.670 KEGG FOLATE BIOSYNTHESIS 0.543 KEGG GAP JUNCTION 0.619 KEGG GASTRIC ACID SECRETION 0.602 KEGG GLYCINE SERINE AND THREONINE METABOLISM 0.602 KEGG GLYCOSAMINOGLYCAN BIOSYNTHESIS CHONDROITIN SULFATE 0.585 KEGG GLYCOSAMINOGLYCAN BIOSYNTHESIS KERATAN SULFATE 0.543 KEGG GLYCOSAMINOGLYCAN DEGRADATION 0.798 KEGG GLYOXYLATE AND DICARBOXYLATE METABOLISM 0.585 KEGG GNRH SIGNALING PATHWAY 0.636 KEGG HISTIDINE METABOLISM 0.798 KEGG HYPERTROPHIC CARDIOMYOPATHY HCM 0.653 KEGG INFLUENZA A 0.777 KEGG JAK STAT SIGNALING PATHWAY 0.766 KEGG LEISHMANIASIS 0.636 KEGG LIPOIC ACID METABOLISM 0.543 KEGG MAPK SIGNALING PATHWAY 0.752 KEGG MEASLES 0.551 KEGG MRNA SURVEILLANCE PATHWAY 0.653 KEGG NEUROACTIVE LIGAND RECEPTOR INTERACTION 0.762 KEGG OTHER TYPES OF O GLYCAN BIOSYNTHESIS 0.585 KEGG OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION 0.752 KEGG P53 SIGNALING PATHWAY 0.636 KEGG PANTOTHENATE AND COA BIOSYNTHESIS 0.762 KEGG PATHOGENIC ESCHERICHIA COLI INFECTION 0.762 KEGG PHOTOTRANSDUCTION 0.566 KEGG PRIMARY IMMUNODEFICIENCY 0.543 KEGG PROGESTERONE MEDIATED OOCYTE MATURATION 0.636 KEGG PYRUVATE METABOLISM 0.602 KEGG RENIN ANGIOTENSIN SYSTEM 0.566 KEGG RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS 0.602 KEGG RIBOSOME BIOGENESIS IN EUKARYOTES 0.602 KEGG RNA TRANSPORT 0.757 KEGG SELENOCOMPOUND METABOLISM 0.566 KEGG SHIGELLOSIS 0.602 KEGG SPHINGOLIPID METABOLISM 0.752 KEGG STARCH AND SUCROSE METABOLISM 0.762 KEGG SULFUR METABOLISM 0.798 KEGG SULFUR RELAY SYSTEM 0.798 KEGG SYNTHESIS AND DEGRADATION OF KETONE BODIES 0.543 KEGG THYROID CANCER 0.543 KEGG TOXOPLASMOSIS 0.670 KEGG TYROSINE METABOLISM 0.566 KEGG UBIQUITIN MEDIATED PROTEOLYSIS 0.766 KEGG VEGF SIGNALING PATHWAY 0.619 KEGG VIBRIO CHOLERAE INFECTION 0.762 REACTOME ABORTIVE ELONGATION OF HIV1 TRANSCRIPT IN THE ABSEN . . . 0.543 REACTOME ACETYLCHOLINE NEUROTRANSMITTER RELEASE CYCLE 0.566 REACTOME ACTIVATED TLR4 SIGNALLING 0.762 REACTOME ACTIVATION OF KAINATE RECEPTORS UPON GLUTAMATE BIND . . . 0.798 REACTOME ADENYLATE CYCLASE ACTIVATING PATHWAY 0.798 REACTOME AKT PHOSPHORYLATES TARGETS IN THE CYTOSOL 0.585 REACTOME AMINE DERIVED HORMONES 0.566 REACTOME AMINO ACID TRANSPORT ACROSS THE PLASMA MEMBRANE 0.602 REACTOME BASE EXCISION REPAIR 0.602 REACTOME BASE FREE SUGAR PHOSPHATE REMOVAL VIA THE SINGLE NU . . . 0.602 REACTOME BASIGIN INTERACTIONS 0.566 REACTOME CAM PATHWAY 0.798 REACTOME CELLEXTRACELLULAR MATRIX INTERACTIONS 0.798 REACTOME CELL CELL ADHESION SYSTEMS 0.566 REACTOME CELL CYCLE CHECKPOINTS 0.653 REACTOME CELL JUNCTION ORGANIZATION 0.762 REACTOME CHEMOKINE RECEPTORS BIND CHEMOKINES 0.566 REACTOME CLASS A1 RHODOPSIN LIKE RECEPTORS 0.752 REACTOME CRMPS IN SEMA3A SIGNALING 0.543 REACTOME CTLA4 INHIBITORY SIGNALING 0.543 REACTOME CYCLIN A1 ASSOCIATED EVENTS DURING G2 M TRANSITION 0.543 REACTOME CYCLIN E ASSOCIATED EVENTS DURING G1 S TRANSITION 0.762 REACTOME CYTOSOLIC TRNA AMINOACYLATION 0.798 REACTOME DEPOLARIZATION OF THE PRESYNAPTIC TERMINAL TRIGGERS . . . 0.798 REACTOME DNA REPAIR 0.766 REACTOME DNA REPLICATION PRE INITIATION 0.636 REACTOME DOWNSTREAM EVENTS IN GPCR SIGNALING 0.752 REACTOME DUAL INCISION REACTION IN GG NER 0.798 REACTOME E2F ENABLED INHIBITION OF PRE REPLICATION COMPLEX F . . . 0.798 REACTOME E2F MEDIATED REGULATION OF DNA REPLICATION 0.585 REACTOME EFFECTS OF PIP2 HYDROLYSIS 0.566 REACTOME EGFR DOWNREGULATION 0.566 REACTOME ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN 0.762 REACTOME ENERGY DEPENDENT REGULATION OF MTOR BY LKB1 AMPK 0.762 REACTOME FACILITATIVE NA INDEPENDENT GLUCOSE TRANSPORTERS 0.585 REACTOME FGFR LIGAND BINDING AND ACTIVATION 0.798 REACTOME FORMATION OF THE EARLY ELONGATION COMPLEX 0.798 REACTOME FORMATION OF THE TERNARY COMPLEX AND SUBSEQUENTLY 0.566 T . . . REACTOME FORMATION OF TUBULIN FOLDING INTERMEDIATES BY CCT T . . . 0.798 REACTOME FRS2MEDIATED CASCADE 0.798 REACTOME FURTHER PLATELET RELEASATE 0.798 REACTOME GAMMA CARBOXYLATION TRANSPORT AND AMINO TERMINAL 0.566 CL . . . REACTOME GENERIC TRANSCRIPTION PATHWAY 0.798 REACTOME GLOBAL GENOMIC NER 0.762 REACTOME GLUCAGON SIGNALING IN METABOLIC REGULATION 0.798 REACTOME GLUCAGON TYPE LIGAND RECEPTORS 0.543 REACTOME GLUCOSE REGULATION OF INSULIN SECRETION 0.551 REACTOME GLUTAMATE NEUROTRANSMITTER RELEASE CYCLE 0.566 REACTOME GLUTATHIONE CONJUGATION 0.762 REACTOME GS ALPHA MEDIATED EVENTS IN GLUCAGON SIGNALLING 0.798 REACTOME G ALPHA I SIGNALLING EVENTS 0.573 REACTOME G BETA GAMMA SIGNALLING THROUGH PI3KGAMMA 0.798 REACTOME G PROTEIN BETA GAMMA SIGNALLING 0.798 REACTOME HOMOLOGOUS RECOMBINATION REPAIR 0.543 REACTOME HOST INTERACTIONS OF HIV FACTORS 0.752 REACTOME HUMAN TAK1 ACTIVATES NFKB BY PHOSPHORYLATION AND 0.543 AC . . . REACTOME INACTIVATION OF APC VIA DIRECT INHIBITION OF THE AP . . . 0.566 REACTOME INTEGRATION OF ENERGY METABOLISM 0.689 REACTOME IONOTROPIC ACTIVITY OF KAINATE RECEPTORS 0.798 REACTOME METABLISM OF NUCLEOTIDES 0.757 REACTOME METABOLISM OF MRNA 0.798 REACTOME METABOLISM OF RNA 0.762 REACTOME MICRORNA BIOGENESIS 0.543 REACTOME MITOTIC PROMETAPHASE 0.752 REACTOME MRNA DECAY BY 3 TO 5 EXORIBONUCLEASE 0.798 REACTOME MTORC1 MEDIATED SIGNALLING 0.566 REACTOME MTOR SIGNALLING 0.762 REACTOME MUSCLE CONTRACTION 0.752 REACTOME MYOGENESSIS 0.762 REACTOME NCAM1 INTERACTIONS 0.752 REACTOME NCAM SIGNALING FOR NEURITE OUT GROWTH 0.752 REACTOME NEF MEDIATES DOWN MODULATION OF CELL SURFACE RECEPT . . . 0.798 REACTOME NEP NS2 INTERACTS WITH THE CELLULAR EXPORT MACHINER . . . 0.798 REACTOME NEUROTRANSMITTER RELEASE CYCLE 0.585 REACTOME NF KB IS ACTIVATED AND SIGNALS SURVIVAL 0.798 REACTOME NOREPINEPHRINE NEUROTRANSMITTER RELEASE CYCLE 0.798 REACTOME NOTCH HLH TRANSCRIPTION PATHWAY 0.543 REACTOME NUCLEAR IMPORT OF REV PROTEIN 0.798 REACTOME NUCLEAR RECEPTOR TRANSCRIPTION PATHWAY 0.602 REACTOME NUCLEOTIDE EXCISION REPAIR 0.762 REACTOME NUCLEOTIDE LIKE PURINERGIC RECEPTORS 0.543 REACTOME OPIOID SIGNALLING 0.752 REACTOME OPSINS 0.543 REACTOME OTHER SEMAPHORIN INTERACTIONS 0.566 REACTOME P75NTR SIGNALS VIA NFKB 0.798 REACTOME PECAM1 INTERACTIONS 0.543 REACTOME PEROXISOMAL LIPID METABOLISM 0.762 REACTOME PHASE 1 FUNCTIONALIZATION 0.798 REACTOME PHASE II CONJUGATION 0.752 REACTOME PHOSPHOLIPASE CMEDIATED CASCADE 0.798 REACTOME PKA ACTIVATION 0.798 REACTOME POLYMERASE SWITCHING 0.798 REACTOME PP2A MEDIATED DEPHOSPHORYLATION OF KEY METABOLIC FA . . . 0.798 REACTOME PREFOLDIN MEDIATED TRANSFER OF SUBSTRATE TO CCT TRI . . . 0.798 REACTOME PROSTANOID HORMONES 0.543 REACTOME PURINE METABOLISM 0.762 REACTOME PYRIMIDINE CATABOLISM 0.585 REACTOME PYRIMIDINE METABOLISM 0.752 REACTOME REGULATION OF AMPK ACTIVITY VIA LKB1 0.762 REACTOME REGULATION OF GLUCOKINASE BY GLUCOKINASE 0.798 REGULATORY . . . REACTOME REGULATION OF INSULIN SECRETION BY ACETYLCHOLINE 0.566 REACTOME REGULATION OF INSULIN SECRETION BY FREE FATTY ACIDS 0.566 REACTOME REGULATION OF INSULIN SECRETION BY GLUCAGON LIKE PE . . . 0.602 REACTOME REGULATION OF LIPID METABOLISM BY PEROXISOME PROLIF . . . 0.762 REACTOME REMOVAL OF DNA PATCH CONTAINING ABASIC RESIDUE 0.602 REACTOME REPAIR SYNTHESIS OF PATCH 27 30 BASES LONG BY DNA P . . . 0.566 REACTOME RESOLUTION OF AP SITES VIA THE SINGLE NUCLEOTIDE RE . . . 0.602 REACTOME REV MEDIATED NUCLEAR EXPORT OF HIV1 RNA 0.798 REACTOME RHO GTPASE CYCLE 0.752 REACTOME SEMA3A PAK DEPENDENT AXON REPULSION 0.543 REACTOME SEMA3A PLEXIN REPULSION SIGNALING BY INHIBITING INT . . . 0.566 REACTOME SEMA4D INDUCED CELL MIGRATION AND GROWTH CONE 0.752 COLLA . . . REACTOME SEMA4D IN SEMAPHORIN SIGNALING 0.752 REACTOME SIGNALING BY BMP 0.585 REACTOME SIGNALING BY ROBO RECEPTOR 0.585 REACTOME SMOOTH MUSCLE CONTRACTION 0.798 REACTOME SNRNP ASSEMBLY 0.798 REACTOME SPHINGOLIPID METABOLISM 0.566 REACTOME STABILIZATION OF P53 0.752 REACTOME STEROID HORMONES 0.566 REACTOME STEROID HORMONE BIOSYNTHESIS 0.798 REACTOME STEROID METABOLISM 0.602 REACTOME STRIATED MUSCLE CONTRACTION 0.752 REACTOME SYNTHESIS AND INTERCONVERSION OF NUCLEOTIDE DI AND . . . 0.798 REACTOME SYNTHESIS OF DNA 0.752 REACTOME S PHASE 0.619 REACTOME TELOMERE MAINTENANCE 0.619 REACTOME THE ROLE OF NEF IN HIV1 REPLICATION AND DISEASE PAT . . . 0.798 REACTOME THROMBIN SIGNALLING THROUGH PROTEINASE ACTIVATED RE . . . 0.543 REACTOME TIGHT JUNCTION INTERACTIONS 0.566 REACTOME TOLL LIKE RECEPTOR 4 CASCADE 0.762 REACTOME TOLL RECEPTOR CASCADES 0.602 REACTOME TRAF6 MEDIATED INDUCTION OF THE ANTIVIRAL CYTOKINE . . . 0.798 REACTOME TRANSCRIPTION COUPLED NER 0.762 REACTOME TRANSFORMATION OF LANOSTEROL TO CHOLESTEROL 0.543 REACTOME TRANSLATION INITIATION COMPLEX FORMATION 0.566 REACTOME TRANSPORT OF RIBONUCLEOPROTEINS INTO THE HOST NUCLE.. 0.798 REACTOME VPR MEDIATED NUCLEAR IMPORT OF PICS 0.798 REACTOME XENOBIOTICS 0.543 SA CASPASE CASCADE 0.752 SA G2 AND M PHASES 0.543 SA MMP CYTOKINE CONNECTION 0.798 SA PTEN PATHWAY 0.585 SA REG CASCADE OF CYCLIN EXPR 0.543 SIG IL4RECEPTOR IN B LYPHOCYTES 0.566 ST ERK1 ERK2 MAPK PATHWAY 0.543 ST GA13 PATHWAY 0.566 ST G ALPHA S PATHWAY 0.543 ST IL 13 PATHWAY 0.543 ST INTERFERON GAMMA PATHWAY 0.543 ST INTERLEUKIN 13 PATHWAY 0.543 ST JAK STAT PATHWAY 0.543 ST JNK MAPK PATHWAY 0.762 ST P38 MAPK PATHWAY 0.762 ST STAT3 PATHWAY 0.543 ST TYPE I INTERFERON PATHWAY 0.543 ST T CELL SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION 0.798 ST WNT BETA CATENIN PATHWAY 0.543 WNT SIGNALING 0.602

TABLE 11 Top genes selected from the Utah 1 cohort Entrez Gene ID Gene Symbol Gene Name 87688 RPL7AP50 ribosomal protein L7a pseudogene 50 391106 VDAC1P9 voltage-dependent anion channel 1 pseudogene 9 100128709 [No Symbol] [No Name] 646272 LOC646272 cytochrome b-c1 complex subunit 8-like 100128700 [No Symbol] [No Name] 286495 TTC3P1 tetratricopeptide repeat domain 3 pseudogene 1 392282 RPS5P6 ribosomal protein S5 pseudogene 6 541468 C1orf190 chromosome 1 open reading frame 190 83604 TMEM47 transmembrane protein 47 400954 EML6 echinoderm microtubule associated protein like 6 647298 HSPD1P8 heat shock 60 kDa protein 1 (chaperonin) pseudogene 8 100132626 LOC100132626 protein FAM103A1-like 440278 CATSPER2P1 cation channel, sperm associated 2 pseudogene 1 100128493 LOC100128493 ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme E2 variant 2 pseudogene 390155 OR5T1 olfactory receptor, family 5, subfamily T, member 1 128774 MRPS11P1 mitochondrial ribosomal protein S11 pseudogene 1 641518 LOC641518 hypothetical LOC641518 149157 [No Symbol] [No Name] 7473 WNT3 wingless-type MMTV integration site family, member 3 54436 SH3TC1 SH3 domain and tetratricopeptide repeats 1 5999 RGS4 regulator of G-protein signaling 4 28869 IGKV6D-41 immunoglobulin kappa variable 6D-41 (non-functional) 55604 LRRC16A leucine rich repeat containing 16A 449518 LOC449518 purinergic receptor P2Y, G-protein coupled, 10 pseudogene 79825 CCDC48 coiled-coil domain containing 48 3809 KIR2DS4 killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptor, two domains, short . . . 442673 TUBG1P tubulin, gamma 1 pseudogene 51266 CLEC1B C-type lectin domain family 1, member B 100129822 [No Symbol] [No Name] 100131609 HNRNPA1P2 heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein A1 pseudogene 2 389428 RPL5P18 ribosomal protein L5 pseudogene 18 100128386 LOC100128386 hypothetical LOC100128386 55270 NUDT15 nudix (nucleoside diphosphate linked moiety X)-type motif 15 649489 LOC649489 protein phosphatase 1, regulatory (inhibitor) subunit 2 pseu . . . 643586 LOC643586 pyruvate kinase, muscle pseudogene 339778 C2orf70 chromosome 2 open reading frame 70 348825 TPRXL tetra-peptide repeat homeobox-like 221016 CCDC7 coiled-coil domain containing 7 647034 RPS14P10 ribosomal protein S14 pseudogene 10 3805 KIR2DL4 killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptor, two domains, long . . . 283314 MATL2963 hypothetical LOC283314 7380 UPK3A uroplakin 3A 408029 C2orf27B chromosome 2 open reading frame 27B 10461 MERTK c-mer proto-oncogene tyrosine kinase 642677 LOC642677 family with sequence similarity 154, member B pseudogene 10877 CFHR4 complement factor H-related 4 283571 PROX2 prospero homeobox 2 340547 VSIG1 V-set and immunoglobulin domain containing 1 100129915 [No Symbol] [No Name] 3426 CFI complement factor I 51499 TRIAP1 TP53 regulated inhibitor of apoptosis 1 780813 PAICSP4 phosphoribosylaminoimidazole carboxylase, phosphoribosylamin . . . 728707 [No Symbol] [No Name] 130813 C2orf50 chromosome 2 open reading frame 50 100132310 LOC100132310 FCF1 small subunit (SSU) processome component homolog (S. ce . . . 729486 IL9RP3 interleukin 9 receptor pseudogene 3 401433 LOC401433 hypothetical LOC401433 286122 C8orf31 chromosome 8 open reading frame 31 219902 TMEM136 transmembrane protein 136 199713 NLRP7 NLR family, pyrin domain containing 7 390282 LOC390282 eukaryotic translation initiation factor 3, subunit F pseudo . . . 1769 DNAH8 dynein, axonemal, heavy chain 8 100130249 PP2672 hypothetical LOC100130249 163778 SPRR4 small proline-rich protein 4 148641 SLC35F3 solute carrier family 35, member F3 400347 LOC400347 REX4, RNA exonuclease 4 homolog (S. cerevisiae) pseudogene 347333 KRT8P14 keratin 8 pseudogene 14 100128646 RPL10AP7 ribosomal protein L10a pseudogene 7 54035 PSMD4P1 proteasome (prosome, macropain) 26S subunit, non-ATPase, 4 p . . . 8228 PNPLA4 patatin-like phospholipase domain containing 4 9363 RAB33A RAB33A, member RAS oncogene family 344887 LOC344887 NmrA-like family domain containing 1 pseudogene 121270 OR11M1P olfactory receptor, family 11, subfamily M, member 1 pseudog . . . 339736 AK2P2 adenylate kinase 2 pseudogene 2 6461 SHB Src homology 2 domain containing adaptor protein B 4744 NEFH neurofilament, heavy polypeptide 90499 LOC90499 hypothetical protein LOC90499 729041 LOC729041 fatty-acid amide hydrolase 1-like 2335 FN1 fibronectin 1 79625 C4orf31 chromosome 4 open reading frame 31 644915 METTL15P2 methyltransferase like 15 pseudogene 2 100132086 LOC100132086 adenylate kinase isoenzyme 6-like 2596 GAP43 growth associated protein 43 326617 PSMA3P proteasome (prosome, macropain) subunit, alpha type, 3 pseud . . . 646576 LOC646576 hypothetical LOC646576 3812 KIR3DL2 killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptor, three domains, lon . . . 100129958 KRT8P44 keratin 8 pseudogene 44 644662 LOC644662 hypothetical protein LOC644662 5054 SERPINE1 serpin peptidase inhibitor, clade E (nexin, plasminogen acti . . . 339983 NAT8L N-acetyltransferase 8-like (GCN5-related, putative) 100037267 LOC100037267 developmental pluripotency associated 4 pseudogene 130013 ACMSD aminocarboxymuconate semialdehyde decarboxylase 219623 TMEM26 transmembrane protein 26 9241 NOG noggin 100128050 LOC100128050 WD repeat domain 77 pseudogene 440603 BCL2L15 BCL2-like 15 152078 C3orf55 chromosome 3 open reading frame 55 201895 C4orf34 chromosome 4 open reading frame 34 100127889 C10orf131 chromosome 10 open reading frame 131 221711 SYCP2L synaptonemal complex protein 2-like 8829 NRP1 neuropilin 1 1472 CST4 cystatin S 729451 LOC729451 hypothetical protein LOC729451 100128389 [No Symbol] [No Name] 201798 TIGD4 tigger transposable element derived 4 118663 BTBD16 BTB (POZ) domain containing 16 6887 TAL2 T-cell acute lymphocytic leukemia 2 64410 KLHL25 kelch-like 25 (Drosophila) 442524 DPY19L2P3 dpy-19-like 2 pseudogene 3 (C. elegans) 259286 TAS2R40 taste receptor, type 2, member 40 731039 [No Symbol] [No Name] 50835 TAS2R9 taste receptor, type 2, member 9 4157 MC1R melanocortin 1 receptor (alpha melanocyte stimulating hormon . . . 401703 LOC401703 splicing factor U2AF 35 kDa subunit-like 785 CACNB4 calcium channel, voltage-dependent, beta 4 subunit 100130268 LOC100130268 similar to hCG1648866 100130859 [No Symbol] [No Name] 100128457 LOC100128457 similar to hCG2026341 100132214 [No Symbol] [No Name] 26 ABP1 amiloride binding protein 1 (amine oxidase (copper-containin . . . 51676 ASB2 ankyrin repeat and SOCS box containing 2 27145 FILIP1 filamin A interacting protein 1 347051 SLC10A5 solute carrier family 10 (sodium/bile acid cotransporter fam . . . 100131819 [No Symbol] [No Name] 728780 ANKDD1B ankyrin repeat and death domain containing 1B

TABLE 12 Top genes selected from the Utah 2 cohort. Entrees Gene ID Gene Symbol Gene Name 541468 C1orf190 chromosome 1 open reading frame 190 55057 AIM1L absent in melanoma 1-like 221016 CCDC7 coiled-coil domain containing 7 7012 TERC telomerase RNA component 148641 SLC35F3 solute carrier family 35, member F3 55270 NUDT15 nudix (nucleoside diphosphate linked moiety X)-type motif 15 647298 HSPD1P8 heat shock 60 kDa protein 1 (chaperonin) pseudogene 8 392282 RPS5P6 ribosomal protein S5 pseudogene 6 728707 [No Symbol] [No Name] 389428 RPL5P18 ribosomal protein L5 pseudogene 18 730255 RPL17P8 ribosomal protein L17 pseudogene 8 100130249 PP2672 hypothetical LOC100130249 4112 MAGEB1 melanoma antigen family B, 1 163778 SPRR4 small proline-rich protein 4 157927 C9orf62 chromosome 9 open reading frame 62 100129822 [No Symbol] [No Name] 83604 TMEM47 transmembrane protein 47 729486 IL9RP3 interleukin 9 receptor pseudogene 3 390282 LOC390282 eukaryotic translation initiation factor 3, subunit F pseudo . . . 197370 NSMCE1 non-SMC element 1 homolog (S. cerevisiae) 728509 RPS19P7 ribosomal protein S19 pseudogene 7 286122 C8orf31 chromosome 8 open reading frame 31 442524 DPY19L2P3 dpy-19-like 2 pseudogene 3 (C. elegans) 647034 RPS14P10 ribosomal protein S14 pseudogene 10 400954 EML6 E{grave over ( )}1chinoderm microtubule associated protein like 6 339778 C2orf70 chromosome 2 open reading frame 70 100128700 [No Symbol] [No Name] 730126 [No Symbol] [No Name] 644662 LOC644662 hypothetical protein LOC644662 642677 LOC642677 family with sequence similarity 154, member B pseudogene 785 CACNB4 calcium channel, voltage-dependent, beta 4 subunit 149157 [No Symbol] [No Name] 100128050 LOC100128050 WD repeat domain 77 pseudogene 729451 LOC729451 hypothetical protein LOC729451 51266 CLEC1B C-type lectin domain family 1, member B 100128646 RPL10AP7 ribosomal protein L10a pseudogene 7 148645 C1orf211 chromosome 1 open reading frame 211 440278 CATSPER2P1 cation channel, sperm associated 2 pseudogene 1 653492 PSG10P pregnancy specific beta-1-glycoprotein 10, pseudogene 347333 KRT8P14 keratin 8 pseudogene 14 391106 VDAC1P9 voltage-dependent anion channel 1 pseudogene 9 100128386 LOC100128386 hypothetical LOC100128386 441502 RPS26P11 ribosomal protein S26 pseudogene 11 100132086 LOC100132086 adenylate kinase isoenzyme 6-like 121270 OR11M1P olfactory receptor, family 11, subfamily M, member 1 pseudog . . . 79022 TMEM106C transmembrane protein 106C 408029 C2orf27B chromosome 2 open reading frame 27B 6461 SHB Src homology 2 domain containing adaptor protein B 27145 FILIP1 filamin A interacting protein 1 401433 LOC401433 hypothetical LOC401433 100131042 [No Symbol] [No Name] 646576 LOC646576 hypothetical LOC646576 10877 CFHR4 complement factor H-related 4 326617 PSMA3P proteasome (prosome, macropain) subunit, alpha type, 3 pseud . . . 3394 IRF8 interferon regulatory factor 8 100128493 LOC100128493 ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme E2 variant 2 pseudogene 440603 BCL2L15 BCL2-like 15 344887 LOC344887 NmrA-like family domain containing 1 pseudogene 728050 [No Symbol] [No Name] 645086 LOC645086 chromosome 11 open reading frame 58 pseudogene 649288 AK4P6 adenylate kinase 4 pseudogene 6 3872 KRT17 keratin 17 100128979 LOC100128979 hypothetical LOC100128979 100128457 LOC100128457 similar to hCG2026341 283553 LOC283553 hypothetical LOC283553 1823 DSC1 desmocollin 1 199713 NLRP7 NLR family, pyrin domain containing 7 91392 ZNF502 zinc finger protein 502 130813 C2orf50 chromosome 2 open reading frame 50 219623 TMEM26 transmembrane protein 26 2596 GAP43 growth associated protein 43 441505 LOC441505 stress-induced-phosphoprotein 1 pseudogene 643586 LOC643586 pyruvate kinase, muscle pseudogene 449518 LOC449518 purinergic receptor P2Y, G-protein coupled, 10 pseudogene 3426 CFI complement factor I 128774 MRPS11P1 mitochondrial ribosomal protein S11 pseudogene 1 87688 RPL7AP50 ribosomal protein L7a pseudogene 50 7380 UPK3A uroplakin 3A 84332 DYDC2 DPY30 domain containing 2 100129915 [No Symbol] [No Name] 100132805 [No Symbol] [No Name] 342666 FLJ43826 FLJ43826 protein 6862 T T, brachyury homolog (mouse) 348825 TPRXL tetra-peptide repeat homeobox-like 1472 CST4 cystatin S 388182 FLJ42289 hypothetical LOC388182 4342 MOS v-mos Moloney murine sarcoma viral oncogene homolog 78998 C8orf51 chromosome 8 open reading frame 51 9241 NOG noggin 780813 PAICSP4 phosphoribosylaminoimidazole carboxylase, phosphoribosylamin . . . 26 ABP1 amiloride binding protein 1 (amine oxidase (copper-containin . . . 55540 IL17RB interleukin 17 receptor B 100128709 [No Symbol] [No Name] 100130268 LOC100130268 similar to hCG1648866 100128389 [No Symbol] [No Name] 353194 LOC353194 keratin pseudogene 100131609 HNRNPA1P2 heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein A1 pseudogene 2 130500 CISD1P1 CDGSH iron sulfur domain 1 pseudogene 1 26256 CABYR calcium binding tyrosine-(Y)-phosphorylation regulated 100127889 C10orf131 chromosome 10 open reading frame 131 100128417 [No Symbol] [No Name] 79625 C4orf31 chromosome 4 open reading frame 31 83844 USP26 ubiquitin specific peptidase 26 128820 CST9LP1 cystatin 9-like pseudogene 1 100132214 [No Symbol] [No Name] 26647 OR7E25P olfactory receptor, family 7, subfamily E, member 25 pseudog . . . 8228 PNPLA4 patatin-like phospholipase domain containing 4 26590 OR8B7P olfactory receptor, family 8, subfamily B, member 7 pseudoge . . . 729041 LOC729041 fatty-acid amide hydrolase 1-like 100130859 [No Symbol] [No Name] 221711 SYCP2L synaptonemal complex protein 2-like 400165 C13orf35 chromosome 13 open reading frame 35 4157 MC1R melanocortin 1 receptor (alpha melanocyte stimulating hormon . . . 3809 KIR2DS4 killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptor, two domains, short . . . 9288 TAAR3 trace amine associated receptor 3 (gene/pseudogene) 10461 MERTK c-mer proto-oncogene tyrosine kinase 100129958 KRT8P44 keratin 8 pseudogene 44 100130321 LOC100130321 DNA fragmentation factor, 45 kDa, alpha polypeptide pseudogen . . . 100132626 LOC100132626 protein FAM103A1-like 729011 [No Symbol] [No Name] 649489 LOC649489 Protein phosphatase 1, regulatory (inhibitor) subunit 2 pseu . . . 4744 NEFH neurofilament, heavy polypeptide 7070 THY1 Thy-1 cell surface antigen 7644 ZNF91 zinc finger protein 91 144715 RAD9B RAD9 homolog B (S. pombe) 653194 LOC653194 KH homology domain-containing protein 1-like 7473 WNT3 wingless-type MMTV integration site family, member 3 283314 MATL2963 hypothetical LOC283314 728545 [No Symbol] [No Name] 151825 KRT18P43 keratin 18 pseudogene 43 647532 LOC647532 phenylalanine-tRNA synthetase-like, beta subunit pseudogene 644862 RPS28P3 ribosomal protein S28 pseudogene 3 100128403 [No Symbol] [No Name] 3626 INHBC inhibin, beta C 347051 SLC10A5 solute carrier family 10 (sodium/bile acid cotransporter fam . . . 283571 PROX2 prospero homeobox 2 100132510 GLRXP3 glutaredoxin (thioltransferase) pseudogene 3 25925 ZNF521 zinc finger protein 521 28869 IGKV6D-41 immunoglobulin kappa variable 6D-41 (non-functional) 387856 C12orf68 chromosome 12 open reading frame 68 606495 CYB5RL cytochrome b5 reductase-like 644588 DNAJA1P3 DnaJ (Hsp40) homolog, subfamily A, member 1 pseudogene 3 56834 GPR137 G protein-coupled receptor 137 100130184 [No Symbol] [No Name] 574447 MIR146B microRNA 146b 8626 TP63 tumor protein p63 286495 TTC3P1 tetratricopeptide repeat domain 3 pseudogene 1 387924 OGFOD1P1 2-oxoglutarate and iron-dependent oxygenase domain containin . . . 55702 CCDC94 coiled-coil domain containing 94 390844 ARIH2P1 ariadne homolog 2 pseudogene 1 5054 SERPINE1 serpin peptidase inhibitor, clade E (nexin, plasminogen acti . . . 641518 LOC641518 hypothetical LOC641518 4085 MAD2L1 MAD2 mitotic arrest deficient-like 1 (yeast) 100131070 LOC100131070 mpv17-like protein 2-like 338094 FAM151A family with sequence similarity 151, member A 388507 ZNF788 zinc finger family member 788 7164 TPD52L1 tumor protein D52-like 1 339983 NAT8L N-acetyltransferase 8-like (GCN5-related, putative) 57570 TRMT5 TRM5 tRNA methyltransferase 5 homolog (S. cerevisiae) 100132053 RPL30P8 ribosomal protein L30 pseudogene 8 100131750 [No Symbol] [No Name] 285231 FBXW12 F-box and WD repeat domain containing 12 400347 LOC400347 REX4, RNA exonuclease 4 homolog (S. cerevisiae) pseudogene 6887 TAL2 T-cell acute lymphocytic leukemia 2 100131602 [No Symbol] [No Name] 3812 KIR3DL2 killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptor, three domains, lon . . . 3625 INHBB inhibin, beta B 201895 C4orf34 chromosome 4 open reading frame 34 56891 LGALS14 lectin, galactoside-binding, soluble, 14 442673 TUBG1P tubulin, gamma 1 pseudogene 2841 GPR18 G protein-coupled receptor 18 392301 SLC25A5P8 solute carrier family 25 (mitochondrial carrier; adenine nuc . . . 414318 C9orf106 chromosome 9 open reading frame 106 645233 LOC645233 thymine-DNAglycosylase pseudogene 23439 ATP1B4 ATPase, Na+/K+ transporting, beta 4 polypeptide 219902 TMEM136 transmembrane protein 136 166752 FREM3 FRAS1 related extracellular matrix 3 79825 CCDC48 coiled-coil domain containing 48 54035 PSMD4P1 proteasome (prosome, macropain) 26S subunit, non-ATPase, 4 p . . . 646272 LOC646272 cytochrome b-c1 complex subunit 8-like 643669 LOC643669 hypothetical protein LOC643669 145259 RPSAP4 ribosomal protein SA pseudogene 4 2335 FN1 fibronectin 1 81849 ST6GALNAC5 ST6 (alpha-N-acetyl-neuraminyl-2,3-beta-galactosyl-1,3)-N-ac . . . 100132073 LOC100132073 cyclin B2 pseudogene 100133337 [No Symbol] [No Name] 100130623 [No Symbol] [No Name] 100132310 LOC100132310 FCF1 small subunit (SSU) processome component homolog (S. ce . . . 5988 RFPL1 ret finger protein-like 1 84099 ID2B inhibitor of DNA binding 2B, dominant negative helix-loop-he . . . 644464 RPSAP61 ribosomal protein SA pseudogene 61 148823 C1orf150 chromosome 1 open reading frame 150 130162 C2orf63 chromosome 2 open reading frame 63 23754 RPL32P5 ribosomal protein L32 pseudogene 5 10316 NMUR1 neuromedin U receptor 1 401703 LOC401703 splicing factor U2AF 35 kDa subunit-like 1266 CNN3 calponin 3, acidic 728780 ANKDD1B ankyrin repeat and death domain containing 1B 643182 LOC643182 upstream binding transcription factor, RNA polymerase I pseu . . . 81889 FAHD1 fumarylacetoacetate hydrolase domain containing 1 344807 CD200R1L CD200 receptor 1-like 140691 TRIM69 tripartite motif containing 69 644915 METTL15P2 methyltransferase like 15 pseudogene 2 139411 PTCHD1 patched domain containing 1 339736 AK2P2 adenylate kinase 2 pseudogene 2 118663 BTBD16 BTB (POZ) domain containing 16 64410 KLHL25 kelch-like 25 (Drosophila) 28466 IGHV1-45 immunoglobulin heavy variable 1-45 285987 DLX6-AS1 DLX6 antisense RNA 1 (non-protein coding) 130013 ACMSD aminocarboxymuconate semialdehyde decarboxylase 259286 TAS2R40 taste receptor, type 2, member 40 9363 RAB33A RAB33A, member RAS oncogene family 729950 LOC729950 hypothetical LOC729950 645474 S100A11P3 S100 calcium binding protein A11 pseudogene 3 653712 LOC653712 intraflagellar transport 122 homolog (Chlamydomonas) pseudog . . . 81050 OR5AC2 olfactory receptor, family 5, subfamily AC, member 2 3226 HOXC10 homeobox C10 392387 LOC392387 adenosylhomocysteinase pseudogene 126259 TMIGD2 transmembrane and immunoglobulin domain containing 2 81431 OR5AC1 olfactory receptor, family 5, subfamily AC, member 1 (gene/p . . . 79696 FAM164C family with sequence similarity 164, member C 100131087 RPLP1P11 ribosomal protein, large, P1 pseudogene 11 644941 [No Symbol] [No Name] 100127983 LOC100127983 hypothetical protein LOC100127983 51499 TRIAP1 TP53 regulated inhibitor of a poptosis 1

TABLE 13 Top genes consistently differentially expressed between individuals who developed hereditary breast cancer and controls. Entrez Gene ID Gene Symbol Gene Name 4675 NAP1L3 nucleosome assembly protein 1-like 3 11123 RCAN3 RCAN family member 3 5769 PTP4A2P2 protein tyrosine phosphatase type IVA, member 2 pseudogene 2 11043 MID2 midline 2 6920 TCEA3 transcription elongation factor A (SII), 3 959 CD40LG CD40 ligand 8797 TNFRSF10A tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily, member 10a 91624 NEXN nexilin (F actin binding protein) 100132341 KIAA0664L3 KIAA0664-like3 4050 LTB lymphotoxin beta (TNF superfamily, member 3) 219670 ENKUR enkurin, TRPC channel interacting protein 400360 C15orf54 chromosome 15 open reading frame 54 128553 TSHZ2 teashirt zinc finger homeobox 2 158399 ZNF483 zinc finger protein 483 390980 ZNF805 zinc finger protein 805 51301 GCNT4 glucosaminyl (N-acetyl) transferase 4, core 2 940 CD28 CD28 molecule 92106 OXNAD1 oxidoreductase NAD-binding domain containing 1 552 AVPR1A arginine vasopressin receptor 1A 643162 DKFZP779L1853 hypothetical LOC643162 56985 C17orf48 chromosome 17 open reading frame 48 9840 KIAA0748 KIAA0748 2791 GNG11 guanine nucleotide binding protein (G protein), gamma 11 161291 TMEM30B transmembrane protein 30B 80177 MYCT1 myc target 1 28984 C13orf15 chromosome 13 open reading frame 15 100132760 [No Symbol] [No Name] 100133168 GPR183P1 G protein-coupled receptor 183 pseudogene 1 2811 GP1BA glycoprotein Ib (platelet), alpha polypeptide 120776 OR2D2 olfactory receptor, family 2, subfamily D, member 2 401093 LOC401093 hypothetical LOC401093 687 KLF9 Kruppel-like factor 9 3957 LGALS2 lectin, galactoside-binding, soluble, 2 3655 ITGA6 integrin, alpha 6 64407 RGS18 regulator of G-protein signaling 18 56271 BEX4 brain expressed, X-linked 4 5920 RARRES3 retinoic acid receptor responder (tazarotene induced) 3 9241 NOG noggin 643951 [No Symbol] [No Name] 54033 RBM11 RNA binding motif protein 11 342618 SLFN14 schlafen family member 14 340554 ZC3H12B zinc finger CCCH-type containing 12B 282997 LOC282997 hypothetical LOC282997 322 APBB1 amyloid beta (A4) precursor protein-binding, family B, membe . . . 401303 ZNF815 zinc finger protein 815 5140 PDE3B phosphodiesterase 3B, cGMP-inhibited 54557 SGTB small glutamine-rich tetratricopeptide repeat (TPR)-containi . . . 51266 CLEC1B C-type lectin domain family 1, member B 258010 SVIP small VCP/p97-interacting protein 135644 TRIM40 tripartite motif containing 40 100131733 LOC100131733 hypothetical LOC100131733 64805 P2RY12 purinergic receptor P2Y, G-protein coupled, 12 3081 HGD homogentisate 1,2-dioxygenase 23531 MMD monocyte to macrophage differentiation-associated 55837 EAPP E2F-associated phosphoprotein 439949 LOC439949 hypothetical LOC439949 25949 SYF2 SYF2 homolog, RNA splicing factor (S. cerevisiae) 57191 VN1R1 vomeronasal 1 receptor 1 80024 SLC24A6 solute carrier family 24 (sodium/potassium/calcium exchanger . . . 147727 LOC147727 hypothetical LOC147727 288 ANK3 ankyrin 3, node of Ranvier (ankyrin G) 5874 RAB27B RAB27B, member RAS oncogene family 283897 C16orf54 chromosome 16 open reading frame 54 144363 LYRM5 LYR motif containing 5 50865 HEBP1 heme binding protein 1 130399 ACVR1C activin A receptor, type IC 152217 LOC152217 hypothetical LOC152217 32 ACACB acetyl-CoA carboxylase beta 1408 CRY2 cryptochrome 2 (photolyase-like) 5578 PRKCA protein kinase C, alpha 1823 DSC1 desmocollin 1 8328 GFI1B growth factor independent 1B transcription repressor 340547 VSIG1 V-set and immunoglobulin domain containing 1 10778 ZNF271 zinc finger protein 271 8436 SDPR serum deprivation response 26119 LDLRAP1 low density lipoprotein receptor adaptor protein 1 51176 LEF1 lymphoid enhancer-binding factor 1 10286 BCAS2 breast carcinoma amplified sequence 2 2053 EPHX2 epoxide hydrolase 2, cytoplasmic 168537 GIMAP7 GTPase, IMAP family member 7 113791 PIK3IP1 phosphoinositide-3-kinase interacting protein 1 4240 MFGE8 milk fat globule-EGF factor 8 protein 5742 PTGS1 prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 1 (prostaglandin G/H syn . . . 403313 PPAPDC2 phosphatidic acid phosphatase type 2 domain containing 2 3337 DNAJB1 DnaJ (Hsp40) homolog, subfamily B, member 1 10140 TOB1 transducer of ERBB2, 1 442673 TUBG1P tubulin, gamma 1 pseudogene 7644 ZNF91 zinc finger protein 91 87 ACTN1 actinin, alpha 1 163259 DENND2C DENN/MADD domain containing 2C 55664 CDC37L1 cell division cycle 37 homolog (S. cerevisiae)-like 1 6403 SELP selectin P (granule membrane protein 140 kDa, antigen CD62) 3480 IGF1R insulin-likegrowth factor 1 receptor 100101405 LOC100101405 chromosome 4 open reading frame 43 pseudogene 91782 CHMP7 CHMP family, member 7 120224 TMEM45B transmembrane protein 45B 255231 MCOLN2 mucolipin 2 259215 LY6G6F lymphocyte antigen 6 complex, locus G6F 94121 SYTL4 synaptotagmin-like 4 22915 MMRN1 multimerin 1 9925 ZBTB5 zinc finger and BTB domain containing 5 222166 C7orf41 chromosome 7 open reading frame 41 7695 ZNF136 zinc finger protein 136 100129866 LOC100129866 etoposide induced 2.4 mRNA pseudogene 644693 [No Symbol] [No Name] 23484 LEPROTL1 leptin receptor overlapping transcript-like 1 130500 CISD1P1 CDGSH iron sulfur domain 1 pseudogene 1 10857 PGRMC1 progesterone receptor membrane component 1 100128616 [No Symbol] [No Name] 55766 H2AFJ H2A histone family, member J 143686 SESN3 sestrin 3 7381 UQCRB ubiquinol-cytochrome c reductase binding protein 2686 GGT7 gamma-glutamyltransferase 7 7754 ZNF204P zinc finger protein 204, pseudogene 9848 MFAP3L microfibrillar-associated protein 3-like 100129436 [No Symbol] [No Name] 321 APBA2 amyloid beta (A4) precursor protein-binding, family A, membe . . . 2815 GP9 glycoprotein IX (platelet) 8654 PDE5A phosphodiesterase 5A, cGMP-specific 4054 LTBP3 latent transforming growth factor beta binding protein 3 84749 USP30 ubiquitin specific peptidase 30 7294 TXK TXK tyrosine kinase 10023 FRAT1 frequently rearranged in advanced T-cell lymphomas 391833 RPS10P11 ribosomal protein S10 pseudogene 11 10179 RBM7 RNA binding motif protein 7 

What is claimed is:
 1. A gene expression panel or array indicative of the risk of developing breast cancer, said panel or array consisting of primers or probes capable of detecting at least 1 gene selected from: (i) the genes of Table 1; (ii) the genes of Table 2; and (iii) genes of Table 3; or (iv) the genes of Table
 4. 2. The gene expression panel or array of claim 1, wherein a range of 1-300 genes or more genes are selected from Table
 1. 3. The gene expression panel or array of claim 1, wherein a range of 1-300 genes or more genes are selected from Table
 2. 4. The gene expression panel or array of claim 1, wherein a range of 1-300 genes or more genes are selected from Table
 3. 5. The gene expression panel or array of claim 1, wherein a range of 1-300 genes or more genes are selected from Table
 4. 6. The gene expression panel or array of claim 1, wherein the panel or array consists of primers or probes capable of detecting between 20 and 300 genes.
 7. The gene expression panel or array of claim 1, wherein the risk is specific to hereditary breast cancer.
 8. The gene expression panel or array of claim 1, wherein the risk is not specific to hereditary breast cancer.
 9. A diagnostic kit containing probes or primers for measuring the expression of one or more genes of Table 1, Table 2, Table 3, and Table
 4. 10. A method of assessing a subject's susceptibility to develop cancer, wherein said cancer is a breast cancer comprising: a. obtaining a nucleic acid for variant detection and/or deregulation of genes or gene expression products, wherein said genes or gene expression products are selected from: (i) the genes of Table 1; (ii) the genes of Table 2; and (iii) genes of Table 3; or (iv) the genes of Table 4; and wherein 1-300 genes or gene expression products are selected b. obtaining a profile of the expression levels of the selected genes or gene expression products in said sample; and c. assessing a subject's susceptibility to develop breast cancer based upon genetic variants and/or a variance in the obtained profile of expression levels of the said selected genes or gene expression products in said subject's sample from the same selected genes or gene expression products of a control gene expression profile from a similar biological sample of a healthy subject, or assessing a subject's susceptibility to develop breast cancer based upon a similarity in the obtained profile of expression levels of said selected genes or gene expression products in said subject's sample to the same selected genes or gene expression products in a gene expression profile characteristic of a subject with breast cancer or a subject who has a proven susceptibility to develop breast cancer.
 11. The method of claim 10, wherein the nucleic acid is obtained by extracting nucleic acid from a biological sample of the subject containing immune cells, peripheral blood, epithelial cells or cancer cells.
 12. The method of claim 10, wherein the nucleic acid is RNA and/or DNA.
 13. The method of claim 12, wherein cDNA is generated from the RNA
 14. The method according to claim 10, wherein said profile is provided in the form of a graph or tree view.
 15. The method according to claim 10, wherein said sample is peripheral blood.
 16. The method according to claim 10, wherein said immune cells are peripheral blood mononuclear cells.
 17. The method of claim 10, wherein 1-300 or more genes are selected from Table
 1. 18. The method of claim 10, wherein 1-300 or more genes are selected from Table
 2. 19. The method of claim 10, wherein 1-300 or more genes are selected from Table
 3. 20. The method of claim 10, wherein 1-300 or more genes are selected from Table
 4. 21. The method of claim 10, wherein the panel or array consists of primers or probes capable of detecting between 20 and 300 genes.
 22. The method according to claim 10, wherein a gene profile formed by a decreased level of one or more of the genes of Table 1 and Table 3, and/or increased levels of one or more of the genes of Table 2 and Table 4, as compared to said healthy profile is indicative of breast cancer or a subject's susceptibility to develop breast cancer.
 23. A method for diagnosing breast cancer in a mammalian subject comprising a. obtaining a nucleic acid for analysis of genes or gene expression products, wherein said genes or gene expression products are selected from: (i) the genes of Table 1; (ii) the genes of Table 2; and (iii) genes of Table 3; or (iv) the genes of Table 4; and wherein at least 5 genes or gene expression products are selected b. obtaining a profile of the expression levels of the selected genes or gene expression products in said sample; and c. diagnosing breast cancer based upon a pattern of obtained expression levels of the said genes or gene expression products that form a gene expression profile characteristic of breast cancer in said subject's sample.
 24. The method of claim 23, wherein the nucleic acid is obtained by extracting nucleic acid from a biological sample of the subject containing immune cells or cancer cells.
 25. The method of claim 23, wherein the nucleic acid is RNA or DNA.
 26. The method of claim 25, wherein cDNA is generated from the RNA
 27. The method according to claim 23, wherein said profile is provided in the form of a graph or tree view.
 28. The method according to claim 23, wherein said sample is peripheral blood.
 29. The method according to claim 23, wherein said immune cells are peripheral blood mononuclear cells.
 30. The method of claim 23, wherein 1-300 or more genes are selected from Table
 1. 31. The method of claim 23, wherein 1-300 or more genes are selected from Table
 2. 32. The method of claim 23, wherein 1-300 or more genes are selected from Table
 3. 33. The method of claim 23, wherein 1-300 or more genes are selected from Table
 4. 34. The method of claim 23, wherein the panel or array consists of primers or probes capable of detecting between 20 and 300 genes.
 35. The method according to claim 23, wherein a gene profile formed by a decreased level of one or more of the genes of Table 1 and Table 3, and/or increased levels of one or more of the genes of Table 2 and Table 4, as compared to said healthy profile is indicative of breast cancer or a subject's susceptibility to develop breast cancer.
 36. The method according to claim 23, wherein said pattern of obtained expression levels of the said genes or gene expression products is compared to a control gene expression profile.
 37. The method of claim 36, wherein the control gene expression profile is from a similar biological sample of a healthy subject.
 38. A method of assessing a subject's susceptibility to develop cancer, wherein said cancer is a breast cancer comprising: a. obtaining a nucleic acid for analysis of genes or gene expression products, wherein said genes or gene expression products are selected from: (i) the genes of Table 1; (ii) the genes of Table 2; and (iii) genes of Table 3; or (iv) the genes of Table 4; and wherein at least 20 genes or gene expression products are selected b. obtaining a profile of the expression levels of the selected genes or gene expression products in said sample; and c. normalizing said expression level to obtain a normalized expression level of the genes of (b); d. assessing a subject's susceptibility to develop breast cancer based upon a variance in the obtained profile of expression levels of the said selected genes or gene expression products in said subject's sample from the same selected genes or gene expression products of a control gene expression profile from a similar biological sample of a healthy subject, or assessing a subject's susceptibility to develop breast cancer based upon a similarity in the obtained profile of expression levels of said selected genes or gene expression products in said subject's sample to the same selected genes or gene expression products in a gene expression profile characteristic of a subject with breast cancer or a subject who has a proven susceptibility to develop breast cancer.
 39. The method of claim 1, wherein one of the following normalization methods are used in step (c): mass, RMA, DWD, or SCAN.
 40. A method for diagnosing breast cancer in a mammalian subject comprising: a. obtaining a nucleic acid for analysis of genes or gene expression products, wherein said genes or gene expression products are selected from: (i) the genes of Table 1; (ii) the genes of Table 2; and (iii) genes of Table 3; or (iv) the genes of Table 4; and wherein at least 20 genes or gene expression products are selected b. obtaining a profile of the expression levels of the selected genes or gene expression products in said sample; and c. normalizing said expression level to obtain a normalized expression level of the genes of (a); and d. diagnosing breast cancer based upon a pattern of obtained expression levels of the said genes or gene expression products that form a gene expression profile characteristic of breast cancer in said subject's sample.
 41. A method of preparing a personalized genomics profile for a breast cancer subject, comprising: a. obtaining a nucleic acid for analysis of genes or gene expression products, wherein said genes or gene expression products are selected from: (i) the genes of Table 1; (ii) the genes of Table 2; and (iii) genes of Table 3; or (iv) the genes of Table 4; and wherein at least 20 genes or gene expression products are selected b. obtaining the expression levels of said genes or gene expression products in said sample; wherein the expression level is normalized against the expression level of at least one reference gene to obtain normalized data or the expression levels in a breast cancer reference tissue set; and c. creating a report summarizing the normalized data obtained by said gene expression analysis, wherein said report includes a prediction of a subject's increased likelihood to develop breast cancer.
 42. A gene expression panel or array indicative of the risk of developing breast cancer, said panel or array consisting of primers or probes capable of detecting at least 20 genes selected from: (i) the genes of Table 5 or; (ii) the genes of Table
 6. 43. The gene expression panel or array of claim 42, wherein 1-79 genes are selected from Table
 5. 44. The gene expression panel or array of claim 42, wherein 1-100 or more genes are selected from Table
 6. 45. The gene expression panel or array of claim 1, wherein the panel or array consists of primers or probes capable of detecting between 20 and 200 genes
 46. The gene expression panel or array of claim 42, wherein the risk is specific to hereditary breast cancer.
 47. The gene expression panel or array of claim 42, wherein the risk is not specific to hereditary breast cancer.
 48. A diagnostic kit containing probes or primers for measuring the expression of one or more genes of Table 5 and Table
 6. 49. A method of assessing a subject's susceptibility to develop cancer, wherein said cancer is a breast cancer comprising: a. obtaining a nucleic acid for amplification of genes or gene expression products, wherein said genes or gene expression products are selected from: (i) the genes of Table 5; or (ii) the genes of Table 6; and wherein at least 1 gene or gene expression products are selected b. obtaining a profile of the expression levels of the selected genes or gene expression products in said sample; and c. assessing a subject's susceptibility to develop breast cancer based upon a variance in the obtained profile of expression levels of the said selected genes or gene expression products in said subject's sample from the same selected genes or gene expression products of a control gene expression profile from a similar biological sample of a healthy subject, or assessing a subject's susceptibility to develop breast cancer based upon a similarity in the obtained profile of expression levels of said selected genes or gene expression products in said subject's sample to the same selected genes or gene expression products in a gene expression profile characteristic of a subject with breast cancer or a subject who has a proven susceptibility to develop breast cancer.
 50. The method of claim 49, wherein the nucleic acid is obtained by extracting nucleic acid from a biological sample of the subject containing immune cells or cancer cells.
 51. The method of claim 49, wherein 1-79 genes are selected from Table
 5. 52. The method of claim 49, wherein 1-100 or more genes are selected from Table
 6. 53. The method of claim 49, wherein the panel or array consists of primers or probes capable of detecting between 1-100 genes. 